example of nursing theories

Nursing Theories & Theorists Explained

What is nursing theory, florence nightingale nursing theory.

• Nursing Theory Users
• Metaparadigms

Nursing Theorists

Nursing theory in practice.

Nursing theory is "a creative and rigorous structuring of ideas that project a tentative, purposeful, and systematic view of phenomena," per the book  Integrated Theory and Knowledge Development in Nursing.

Nursing theory provides the foundational knowledge that enables nurses to care for their patients and guides their actions. Theories are in place, regardless of nursing specialization, to establish guidelines for both broad and specific nursing practices.

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Nursing theory is heavily influenced by Florence Nightingale's pioneering work, which significantly influenced the modern  nursing definition .

Nightingale's Environmental Theory stated that nursing “ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth, cleanliness, quiet, and the proper selection and administration of diet – all at the least expense of vital power to the patient.” 

By identifying potential risk factors for illness or conditions that would exacerbate an illness and potentially lead to death, Nightingale saw the importance of a patient’s environment to their overall health and well-being. As a result, healthcare professionals, including nurses, began to treat patients differently and the start of population health and public health is seen. 

5 Environmental Factors

In Florence Nightingale’s Environmental Theory, she identified five environmental factors: 

• Efficient drainage 
• Cleanliness or sanitation
• Light or direct sunlight

These factors were essential to decrease the spread of contagious diseases and decreasing mortality and morbidity. 

While Florence Nightingale may have introduced the first nursing theory in 1860, it is still highly relevant today. In countries without fresh air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness or sanitation, and light or direct sunlight, morbidity and mortality are increased. 

What are Nursing Theories Used For?

Nursing theories provide the foundation for nursing practice and are essential to the care of patients. Here are some of the ways nursing theory is used:

1. Policies and Procedures

Academic hospitals and Magnet hospitals will consistently ensure that nursing theories are incorporated into their policies and procedures to ensure the use of best practices. 

2. Daily Nursing Duties

Most nurses and institutions employ a variety of nursing theories rather than just one theory in their everyday practice. Most do this unknowingly. Nursing theories help bedside nurses evaluate patient care and base nursing interventions on the evaluation of the findings. 

3. Decision Making

The theories can also provide nurses with the rationale to make certain decisions. 

An example of a nursing theory in use is seen in the care of a Jehovah’s Witnesses patient who does not believe in blood transfusions. While the patient may need a blood transfusion, Dorothea Orem’s Self-Care theory provides nurses with a solid basis for assisting their patients and giving them the opportunity to express independence and control in caring for themselves. While the nurse may not agree with the patient’s decision not to receive a blood transfusion, Orem’s theory suggests the importance of allowing the patient to make the decision and respecting it as their own choice. 

The integration of nursing theory is often not as obvious as in the example above. However, nurses and nursing students need to understand and respect the importance of nursing theories and their impact on modern-day nursing and healthcare. 

Who are Nursing Theories Used By?

While all nurses, regardless of position and specialty, utilize nursing theories in their practice, not all nurses are aware of their implications. Generally speaking, most nursing theories are used by nurse educators and nurse researchers. 

Nurse educators will utilize nursing theories in designing course curriculums based on educational principles, research, and theories to provide nursing students with the knowledge and skills needed to provide care to their patients. 

Nurse researchers will conduct theory-guided research in order to create best practices and to predict potential clinical problems or explain existing knowledge. 

Nursing Metaparadigms

Since Florence Nightingale's Environmental Theory, countless nursing theories have been introduced, including Imogene King‘s Theory of Goal and Dorothy Johnson’s Behavioral System Model. What they all have in common is that they center around the nursing metaparadigm. A metaparadigm is a set of theories or ideas that structure how a discipline should function.

4 Categories of Nursing Metaparadigms

Nursing metaparadigms were first classified by Fawcett into four specific categories, 

• Environment

These four concepts are fundamental to all nursing theories, and without their identification and relevance to the theory, they are incomplete.

Furthermore, these four basic nursing metaparadigms point to the holistic care of patients, and their medical health is interconnected to the four concepts. 

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The Four Main Concepts of Nursing Theory

Fawcett’s four specific concepts help define nursing and set it apart from other disciplines and professions. These four concepts have been used to define the context and content of the nursing profession. The person is the most important concept in nursing theory, but each theorist's interpretation of the other concepts is how to differentiate between them. 

Person (also referred to as Client or Human Being) is the recipient of nursing care and may include individuals, patients, groups, families, and communities.

2. Environment

Environment or situation is defined as the internal and external surroundings that affect the patient. It includes all positive or negative conditions that affect the patient, the physical environment, such as families, friends, and significant others, and the setting for where they go for their healthcare.

Health is defined as the degree of wellness or well-being that the client experiences. It may have different meanings for each patient, the clinical setting, and the health care provider.

The attributes, characteristics, and actions of the nurse providing care on behalf of or in conjunction with, the client. 

Levels of Nursing Theory

Nursing theories are categorized into three levels including, 

• Grand Nursing Theories
• Mid-range Nursing Theories
• Nursing Practice Theories

Grand Nursing Theories 

These are theories based on broad, abstract, and complex concepts. They provide the general framework for nursing ideas pertaining to components such as people and health. These theories typically stem from a nurse theorist’s own experience.

Mid-Range Nursing Theories 

These are theories that drill down into specific areas of nursing rather than deal with sweeping concepts. They can emerge from nursing practice, research, or from the theories of similar disciplines.

Nursing Practice Theories 

These are theories that narrow their focus even further, specifically focusing on concepts concerning a defined patient population. These theories tend to directly affect patients more than the other two types of theories. Bedside nurses will often use these theories in their everyday practice. 

We talked about Nightingale and Orems' role as nursing theorists and reviewed their respective theories. Let's explore the work of some other notable nursing theorists and how their work helps nurses and other healthcare providers give better patient care.

Virginia Henderson: Nursing Need Theory

Virginia Henderson's Nursing Need Theory centers around the concept of basic human needs. Henderson believed that the role of a nurse is to assist individuals in meeting their fundamental needs and help them increase their independence. 

Her theory emphasizes the nurse's role in supporting patients in activities such as:

• Maintaining desired postures
• Dress and undress
• Cleanliness
• Communicating fears, opinions, and needs, and
• Worshiping according to their faith

Jean Watson:  Theory of Human Caring

Jean Watson is a contemporary nursing theorist renowned for her Theory of Human Caring . Watson emphasizes the importance of creating a caring and compassionate relationship between the nurse and the patient. 

Her theory focuses on  ten factors:

• Upholding humanistic-altruistic values by practicing kindness and compassion
• Being genuinely present and fostering faith, hope, and belief systems while respecting the subjective experiences of oneself and others
• Cultivating self-awareness and spiritual practices, transcending ego-centeredness to achieve a transpersonal presence.
• Developing and nurturing loving, trusting, and caring relationships
• Encouraging the expression of both positive and negative emotions, actively listening to others' stories without judgment
• Applying creative problem-solving through the caring-healing process
• Engaging in transpersonal teaching and learning within a caring relationship, adapting to the individual's perspective and transitioning towards a coaching approach for enhanced health
• Creating a healing environment on various levels, fostering an atmosphere of authentic caring presence at an energetic and subtle level.
• Acknowledging the interconnectedness of mind, body, and spirit while upholding human dignity
• Embracing the spiritual, mysterious, and unknown aspects of life

Madeleine Leininger: Transcultural Nursing Theory

Leininger's Transcultural Nursing Theory , also called Culture Care Theory, focuses on providing culturally congruent care by understanding and respecting the values, beliefs, and practices of diverse individuals and groups.

Hildegard Peplau: Interpersonal Relations Theory

Peplau's Interpersonal Theory of Interpersonal Relations emphasizes that the journey of nurse-patient relationships involves three pivotal stages that are essential for their success: 

• The initial orientation
• A dynamic working phase, and
• A  thoughtful termination process

According to Peplau, the nurse's role is to facilitate the patient's growth and development by utilizing therapeutic communication, empathy, and understanding.

Betty Neuman: Neuman Systems Model

The Neuman Systems Model focuses on identifying stressors that have the potential to negatively impact an individual's health and overall well-being. It incorporates various factors such as physiological, psychological, sociocultural, and developmental aspects. 

The theory also provides a flexible structure for assessment, intervention, and evaluation in nursing practice. 

Sister Callista Roy: Adaptation Model

The Roy Adaptation Model is based on the belief that individuals are adaptive systems, constantly interacting with their environment to maintain their physiological and psychosocial integrity. It views the person as a holistic being, consisting of four interconnected adaptive modes:

Physiological Mode: Deals with physical and biological aspects of adaptation, including the body's response to stressors, maintaining homeostasis, and meeting basic physiological needs.

Self-Concept Mode: Focuses on individuals' perception of themselves, including self-esteem and self-image.

Role Function Mode: Considers the roles people have in their lives, such as spouse, parent, employee, or student. 

Interdependence Mode: Emphasizes the importance of social relationships and how individuals interact with others, such as support from social networks.

Martha Rogers: Science of Unitary Human Being

Rogers' Science of Unitary Human Beings believed that nursing should focus on promoting harmony and balance within the individual and their environment. 

Her theory emphasizes the interconnectedness of human beings with their surroundings and the importance of energy fields in health and healing. Spoken another way, patients cannot be considered as “separate” from their environment.

Patricia Benner: Novice to Expert Theory

Benner's Novice to Expert Theory describes the stages of nursing skill from novice to advanced beginner, and finally, to competent. 

She emphasizes the importance of practical experience and clinical judgment in nursing practice and highlights that expertise develops over time through practice and reflection.

Imogene King: Theory of Goal Attainment

King's Theory of Goal Attainment focuses on the nurse-patient relationship and the mutual goal-setting process. Her theory emphasizes that nurses and patients should collaborate to establish goals that promote the patient's well-being and health.

Katharine Kolcaba: Comfort Theory

Kolcaba's Comfort Theory highlights the significance of providing comfort to patients as a central goal of nursing care. 

Her theory defines comfort as the immediate experience of being strengthened in physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural dimensions.

Kolcalba’s framework proposes that healthcare providers:

• Assess if patient’s comfort needs are not being met
• Create interventions to meet those needs
• Measure comfort prior to and after the interventions

Nursing theories are used every day in practice even if nurses aren’t aware of their use. Theories help guide evidence-based research which then leads to best practices and policies. These policies and procedures keep patients safe, while providing the best care possible. 

Nursing theories also allow nurses to positively influence the health and well-being of their patients beyond taking care of them at the bedside. Nursing theory-guided practice helps improve the quality of care delivered and helps continue to move the nursing profession forward into the 21st century. 

Most bedside nurses will not necessarily know the theories behind their practice so their usefulness is often dismissed. Advanced practice nurses, nurse scholars, nurse educators, and nurse researchers are most likely going to be up to date on current nursing theories and their impact on the nursing profession. 

Nursing theories should continue to guide nursing practice both in academia and at the bedside. It allows nurses to provide current best-practice care to their patients while also impacting them beyond the bedside. Florence Nightingale’s Environmental Theory was groundbreaking during the 1860s and helped change the course of nursing and healthcare while changing the outcomes of patients through the identification of environmental factors that may hinder their health and well-being. 

Nursing Theory FAQs

What are the major nursing theories .

• All nursing theories encompass person, environment, health, and the nurse and are categorized into three hierarchies: grand nursing theories, middle-range nursing theories, and practice level nursing theories.  

What are examples of nursing theory? 

• Some examples of nursing theories include the Environmental Theory, the Casey Model of Nursing, the Martha Rogers Theory, the Tidal Model, and the Cultural Care Theory. 

What is the Casey model of nursing?

• The Casey Model of Nursing is a model of nursing designed to encompass the child-health relationship with five focuses: child, family, health, environment, and the nurse. 

What is Martha Roger's Theory?

• The Martha Rogers Theory of nursing looks at people as “unitary” human beings that can’t be divided into parts and nursing as a blend of both art and science. 

What is a partnership model in nursing?

• It’s a patient and family-centered care system that focuses on partnership between the two, along with education, support, communication, and collaborative practice.

What are the principles of the tidal model? 

• The tidal model of nursing has 6 principles: curiosity, virtue, mystery investigation, respect of the person, crisis as an opportunity, possessing goals, and pursuit of elegance.

Kathleen Gaines (nee Colduvell) is a nationally published writer turned Pediatric ICU nurse from Philadelphia with over 13 years of ICU experience. She has an extensive ICU background having formerly worked in the CICU and NICU at several major hospitals in the Philadelphia region. After earning her MSN in Education from Loyola University of New Orleans, she currently also teaches for several prominent Universities making sure the next generation is ready for the bedside. As a certified breastfeeding counselor and trauma certified nurse, she is always ready for the next nursing challenge.

Education: MSN Nursing Education - Loyola University New Orleans BSN - Villanova University BA- University  of Mary Washington

Expertise: Pediatric Nursing, Neonatal Nursing, Nursing Education, Women’s Health, Intensive Care, Nurse Journalism, Cardiac Nursing 

12 Vital Nursing Theories & Important Nurse Theorists

Nursing theories are something you learn in nursing school. But don’t just glaze over this part. Understanding these theories and the nurse theorists that created them can greatly impact your nursing job.

Table of Contents

What are nursing theories.

Nursing theories are basically a philosophy or a way of looking at the nursing profession. There have been hundreds of authors and nursing pioneers who have helped to construct how we view nursing today. Some of the theories help us understand how to communicate with patients, care for them, and encourage healing.

A paper published by the University Hospital Wales states that a nursing theory “helps nurses to understand their purpose and role in the healthcare setting.”

What are Nursing Models?

Nursing models provide structured frameworks that help organize a nurse’s scope of care. Grounded in nursing theories and scientific evidence, these models guide patient care, practice, research, and education. Some notable examples include Roy’s Adaptation Model, Roper-Logan-Tierney’s Model, Rogers’ Theory, Peplau’s Theory, and Parse’s Theory, each offering a unique perspective on nursing care and the nurse-patient relationship.

These models serve as a navigational tool for nurses amidst the multifaceted healthcare environment, offering a defined scope of practice. Nursing models help nurses in their daily interactions with patients by translating theoretical concepts into practical guidelines, as explained by the University of Wisconsin–Madison . They simplify complex phenomena, offering a more precise understanding and organization of nursing practice.

Furthermore, nursing models can be categorized into traditional and contemporary types. Traditional models like total patient care, functional nursing, team nursing, and primary nursing have been longstanding. On the other hand, current models, like patient-centered care, focus on evolving healthcare needs and patient empowerment. Each with its unique advantages, disadvantages, and impacts on quality outcomes, as detailed on ScienceDirect . Through these models, nursing professionals can better comprehend and navigate the diverse landscape of patient care, contributing to improved healthcare delivery and patient outcomes.

Nursing Theories vs Nursing Models

Nursing theories and models are integral in guiding nursing practice, yet they serve distinct roles. Nursing theories offer a conceptual framework that defines and describes nursing, explaining the underlying principles that guide nursing practice and research. They provide a systematic view of nursing by organizing the relationships between concepts to describe, explain, predict, and control nursing practice. On the other hand, nursing models are structured frameworks derived from these theories, providing a more practical approach to nursing care. They translate the abstract concepts from nursing theories into actionable guidelines that nurses can follow in their day-to-day interactions with patients.

While nursing theories delve into the abstract and conceptual aspects of nursing, offering a broad understanding, nursing models provide a more focused and structured approach to patient care. They apply the general principles outlined in nursing theories in a practical setting, ensuring that the care provided aligns with the underlying theoretical foundations. By doing so, nursing models help organize and deliver care, emphasizing the systematic application of nursing theories to real-world practice, and ensuring a cohesive and comprehensive approach to patient care. Nursing theories and models contribute to nursing practice’s ongoing evolution and improvement through this symbiotic relationship.

Types of Nursing Theories

There are three primary types of nursing theories, each with a different scope and level of abstraction. They are:

• Grand Nursing Theories: These theories are highly abstract and broad in scope, aiming to provide a conceptual framework for the entire nursing discipline. They explore the fundamental principles and concepts of nursing and are often not directly testable due to their level of abstraction. Examples include Orem’s Self-Care Theory and Roy’s Adaptation Model .
• Middle-Range Nursing Theories: These theories are less abstract than grand theories and focus on specific phenomena or concepts within nursing. They are more easily applied to practice and are often developed through research.
• Practice (or Situation-Specific) Nursing Theories: These theories are the most concrete and narrowly focused, often developed for a specific type of patient or a narrowly defined group of situations. They are derived from grand and middle-range theories but are designed to guide practice directly. Examples might include a theory on managing pain in pediatric patients, or coping with chronic illness.

Each of these types of theories plays a crucial role in advancing nursing knowledge, guiding practice, and improving patient care. While grand theories provide a broad perspective and foundation for the nursing profession, middle-range theories offer a closer look at specific nursing phenomena , and practice theories provide actionable guidelines for specific situations within nursing practice.

12 Essential Nursing Theories & Nurse Theorists

While there are enough nursing theories out there to fill a book, I picked out the 12 most applicable and useful nursing theories. These are some of the main ones that nurses still use today. Learning about them could give you a clearer view of your job as a nurse and help you discover new motivation and purpose.

Read through these theories and ask yourself how they can apply to your job and help you become a better nurse.

1. Environmental Theory – Florence Nightingale

Florence Nightingale created this theory back in 1859. It states the extreme importance and influence of the environment in the health and healing of patients.

According to Florence Nightingale, this theory “ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth, cleanliness, quiet, and the proper selection and administration of diet – all at the least expense of vital power to the patient.”

Following this method means you try to make the patient’s room a place of healing. It also means keeping it clean, ensuring they are eating right, and helping them have access to plenty of light and fresh air. It also means the patient has a voice and a say in all of this. Listen to them and help them understand why you administer care the way you do.

2. Theory of Interpersonal Relations – Hildegard E. Peplau

Hildegard E. Peplau developed her theory in 1952. It looks closely at the effect of the nurse’s interactions with the sick and how they heal.

According to the Nursing Theory website , it is comprised of four parts.

The four components of the theory are: person, which is a developing organism that tries to reduce anxiety caused by needs; environment, which consists of existing forces outside of the person and put in the context of culture; health, which is a word symbol that implies forward movement of personality and other human processes toward creative, constructive, productive, personal, and community living.

This theory is used a lot in psychiatric nursing. You can put it into practice by understanding how the environment and the patient’s needs affect their overall health.

3. Maternal Role Attainment Theory – Ramona Mercer

Ramona Mercer created this theory about nursing care and interventions for mothers. It looks closely at the bond mothers have with their newborn babies and how nurses can help facilitate it. She did most of her studies in the 1970s, learning about parenting in low and high-risk situations.

This is a very important theory to know if you want to be a neonatal nurse or work on the labor and delivery floor.

4. Nursing Process Theory – Ida Jean Orlando

We can thank Ida Jean Orlando for developing this theory. Because of it, we now understand the importance of a nursing care plan for different scenarios.

This theory not only establishes the necessity of nursing care plans , but it also establishes the importance of communicating effectively with patients. According to her, patients have their own interpretations of their health and situation. Nurses ought to validate their analyses with the patient before drawing conclusions.

5. Tidal Modal Theory – Phil Barker

Another theory that deals mostly with mental health is the Tidal Modal Theory by Phil Barker.

People need to gain control of their lives for them to heal and improve. This theory gives a framework to explore the patient’s need for nursing care, and for how to create an individual care plan .

Like the nursing process theory, this one gives power and respect to the patients. They know what they are experiencing and they have the power to begin the healing journey. Nurses should be curious, asking lots of questions and learning all they can from the patient.

6. Nursing Need Theory – Virginia Henderson

Virginia Henderson, a distinguished nurse, author, and theorist, devised the Nursing Need Theory , which emphasizes aiding patients to attain self-sufficiency by addressing their fundamental needs. This approach enhances patients’ recovery rates and guides them towards health independence, or a peaceful demise when necessary. Henderson’s intent behind this theory was not to create a new nursing paradigm, but to elucidate the unique focus of nursing practice; defining nursing as aiding individuals in performing activities contributing to health or its restoration, as detailed in Nurseslabs .

The essence of Henderson’s theory bridges the gap between patient needs and self-sufficiency, shedding light on nurses’ crucial role in healthcare. By understanding and applying the principles of the Nursing Need Theory, nursing professionals can better address patient needs, thereby enhancing healthcare delivery and patient outcomes. Through this theoretical lens, Henderson has imparted a lasting insight that resonates in contemporary nursing practice, facilitating a better comprehension of the interplay between patient needs and nursing care.

7. Philosophy and Theory of Transpersonal Caring – Jean Watson

In 1979, Jean Watson created the theory of transpersonal caring. This theory looks beyond treating disease to promoting overall health and preventing disease.

It looks at how nurses care for patients and how those care plans can promote overall health and wellness, prevent disease, and restore health.

If you prefer the more humanistic approach to nursing, you will love this theory. She taught that caring for people holistically promotes better health than a simple medical cure. The word you will read over and over as you study Jean Watson’s theory is caring . Caring is essential to nursing. A caring environment accepts people as they are and helps them become healthier.

8. Advancing Patient-Centered Nursing – Faye Abdellah

Faye Abdellah pioneered the “Twenty-One Nursing Problems Theory,” marking a significant paradigm shift in nursing. Her theory introduced the concept of nursing diagnosis, suggesting that nurses could actively contribute to this process through their job responsibilities, as detailed in Nursing Theory and Health Research Funding sources.

Abdellah’s theory emphasized a patient-centered approach, advocating a shift from a disease-centered to a patient-centered model. This framework laid a foundation for nurses to identify a patient’s problems and develop care plans, guiding them to look beyond medical diagnoses, and focus on fulfilling patients’ comprehensive health needs, as highlighted by Nurse Labs and Bradley University Online .

9. Neuman Systems Model – Betty Neuman

Betty Neuman is a notable nursing theorist known for developing the Neuman Systems Model , which adopts a holistic view of patients and their interactions with external and internal environmental stressors. At the heart of Neuman’s theory is the idea of energy resources enveloped by three defensive lines:

• the normal line of defense symbolizing the patient’s equilibrium
• the flexible line of defense representing the adaptive and response capacity
• and several lines of resistance depicting internal factors aiding against stressors, as detailed on Nursing Theory .

Neuman’s model visualizes individuals as open systems in a state of constant interaction with environmental forces, striving for systemic stability. This model encapsulates a comprehensive, holistic, and system-based approach to nursing, offering a structured yet adaptable framework. Through the Neuman Systems Model, nursing professionals can better manage the complexities entailed in patient care, thus enhancing the quality and effectiveness of nursing practice by providing a better understanding and organization of nursing care in response to patients’ diverse needs and conditions.

10. Science of Unitary Human Beings – Martha Rogers

The Science of Unitary Human Beings is a distinctive nursing theory crafted by Martha E. Rogers, embodying both the scientific and humanitarian aspects of nursing. This theory views patients as “unitary human beings” who are indivisible and should be perceived holistically. Rogers proposed that patients have the agency to consciously partake in the change process, underlining an intrinsic connection between individuals and their environments.

Martha Rogers emphasized that nursing is a blend of science and art, with its uniqueness in the phenomena it focuses on. The overarching goal is to promote health and well-being for individuals, irrespective of their circumstances. Rogers meticulously articulated these theoretical insights in her landmark book, “An Introduction to the Theoretical Basis of Nursing.” Through the Science of Unitary Human Beings theory, Rogers has provided a robust foundation that continues to guide and inspire the nursing community in delivering holistic and patient-centric care.

11. Transcultural Nursing Theory – Madeleine Leininger

The Transcultural Nursing Theory , devised by Madeleine Leininger, underscores the importance of cultural awareness in healthcare. Also known as Culture Care Theory, it advocates for culturally congruent nursing care, aligning care practices with an individual’s or group’s cultural beliefs, values, and lifestyle. This theory is pivotal in a globalized world, promoting cultural competence among healthcare providers to ensure effective and respectful care across diverse cultural settings.

Leininger’s groundbreaking work has also pioneered Transcultural Nursing as a distinct discipline during her tenure at the University of Washington in the early 1970s. Her theory enhances therapeutic nurse-patient relationships and improves healthcare outcomes by ensuring culturally tailored care practices, thus promoting patient satisfaction and adherence to care plans.

12. Theory of Goal Attainment – Imogene King

Imogene King pioneered the Theory of Goal Attainment in the early 1960s. This pivotal time was when nursing veered from a task-oriented to a more patient-centered approach. This theory posits a dynamic, interpersonal relationship where patients grow and develop to attain life goals, with nurses and patients collaborating to achieve mutually agreed-upon goals. The Theory of Goal Attainment elucidates factors like roles, stress, space, and time, which can impact goal achievement, aiding nurses in fostering a nurturing nurse-patient relationship to help patients meet their health goals.

Imogene’s insightful work provided a theoretical scaffold and significantly contributed to nursing theory development . Her theories, including the interacting systems theory of nursing, have been integral in every significant nursing theory text, showcasing her extensive impact on the nursing profession and education. Through her Theory of Goal Attainment, King has facilitated a deeper understanding and appreciation of the patient-nurse relationship, enhancing the effectiveness and quality of nursing care.

Nursing Theories Shape Your Role as a Nurse

As you study more nursing theories, you’ll discover more about yourself as a nurse. Do you feel more comfortable thinking about numbers and figures, or are you drawn to caring for the whole person? Defining your own nursing theory can help you understand how to better help people who come to you for help.

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There are no ifs, ands, or buts about it: Nursing theories are important to understand both in practice and during study for key nursing exams while enrolled in a nursing school.

Nursing theories serve as the foundation of clinical decision-making from what nursing is to what and why nurses do what they do. And because nursing practices have evolved alongside nursing science, nursing theories continue to emerge to provide valuable insights.

Each nursing theory organizes a particular philosophy and framework of nursing that helps identify what nurses should do and the purpose of their actions in treating clients. The application of nursing theory in clinical practice can improve their professional nursing decision-making skills by following these system processes.

We’ll walk you through what you need to know about these theories.

What is nursing theory?

Nursing theories are the cornerstone of quality nursing practice. They’ve been used for a long time — since Florence Nightingale introduced the first nursing theory around 1860. In short, a nursing theory outlines clients’ needs and explains how nurses should respond to different situations. Over the years, different nursing theorists have created guidelines for understanding the nursing role, the relationship between a nurse and their client, and the best treatment options for clients. These different theories reflect nursing research and work to improve clients’ overall well-being.

What is the nursing metaparadigm?

The nursing metaparadigm is the idea that four main components interact, and are generally interrelated when treating clients. The metaparadigm provides structure and key areas of focus that help define how nurses should evaluate a client and their needs and then determine the appropriate nursing care.

The metaparadigm is reflected in the different nursing systems. When nurses use all four components when evaluating and treating clients, they provide holistic care. The major components of the metaparadigm look at the client’s health from all angles.

Those interested in the nursing profession should make sure they understand the four components.

The 4 Main Concepts of Nursing Theory

The nursing metaparadigm identifies four main concepts of nursing theory — first named by Jacqueline Fawcett — that outline how nurses need to evaluate their patients and provide care.

We’ll walk you through these four main components so you can see how they interact to create the full picture of a patient’s health and needs.

What Are the 4 Nursing Theories?

In a nursing theory, the Person can also be referred to as a Patient or Human Being. These terms all reference the patient or other people receiving care offered by the nurse.

For example, when caring for a patient in a hospital, the patient will have the title of Person. If the nurse offers HIV education programs in a community health center, on the other hand, the group would receive this classification.

When nurses work to define who the person is receiving their care, they should take a holistic look at the individual or the group. This means considering their social, spiritual, and physical needs.

Environment

The Environment can also be referred to as the Situation. You can define this classification by looking at all the different surroundings and conditions that impact the patient or people receiving care.

For example, the Environment includes the physical place where the person is and the people in their lives that impact their health. All of these environmental factors should be recognized in the conceptual framework of each nursing theory.

Health describes the current physical health of the person receiving care. This classification looks at the overall wellness of the person or people in question. Looking at the patient’s overall health requires not only collecting vitals but also looking at their emotional health and even their social conditions.

The Nursing classification describes the actions the nurse takes to provide care to the person or people in question. This might take the form of nursing care in a clinical setting, such as putting in an IV, or educational care that nurses provide to community members or family members of patients.

There are a variety of nursing theories that nurses consult to help them better understand their patients and provide optimal care. Most theories fall under three main categories, though.

Grand Nursing Theories  

Grand Nursing Theories describe abstract nursing theories that focus on providing frameworks for understanding nursing behavior and don’t have too many details.

• Abstract and complex frameworks that require further research for clarification.
• Offer general conceptualizations of nursing phenomena without prescribing specific interventions.
• Developed based on personal experiences and historical contexts, addressing key components of the nursing metaparadigm.

Middle-Range Nursing Theories

Middle-Range Nursing Theories are slightly more specific than Grand Nursing Theories and provide more details about behavior and specific patient populations that each theory focuses on.

• Focus on specific nursing phenomena with less complexity than grand theories.
• Proposed as more testable alternatives to grand theories, bridging the gap between theory and practice.
• Often derived from existing grand theories or empirical research in nursing or related disciplines.

Practice-Level Nursing Theories

Practice-Level Nursing Theories provide more minute details about specific types of patients and situations.

• Narrow in scope and tailored to specific patient populations and contexts.
• Offer practical frameworks for nursing interventions and predict outcomes of nursing practices.
• Directly impact nursing practice and are informed by concepts from middle-range and grand theories.

Let’s now explore some of the most common nursing theories you can expect to encounter as you begin your nursing career.

Change Theory

Change theory is a set of principles and concepts that explain how change occurs in individuals and organizations. It provides a roadmap for understanding the change process and the factors that influence it. Change theory is based on the idea that change is a process, not an event. It involves a series of stages that individuals and organizations go through as they adopt new behaviors or practices.

Environmental Theory

The Environmental Nursing Theory is the first framework developed by Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War. Nightingale discovered connections between the environment in which the patient was situated and their recovery and health.

Nightingale focused on the importance of providing patients with five key requirements:

• Efficient drainage
• Sanitation or cleanliness
• Light or direct sunlight

Patient-Centered Approach to Nursing

The Patient-Centered Approach to Nursing theory was developed in the 1940s by Faye Abdellah. The goal of this approach lies in guiding the care that nurses provide in hospitals and clinical settings.

This approach walks nurses through 10 specific steps:

• Get to know the patient and their health problems and needs.
• Gather data and sort out the most relevant information.
• Use past experiences and insights into the nursing profession to compare the patient with other patients who have presented similarly.
• Create a therapeutic plan to treat the patient.
• Create tests and run them to see how the patient compares and what new generalizations need to be made.
• Speak with the patient about what they view as their nursing problems.
• Observe the patient throughout the treatment period to see if there are any changes in their behavior.
• Observe how the patient and their loved ones react to the nursing treatment plan.
• Determine the nurse’s perceptions of the nursing problems facing the patient.
• Create a comprehensive nursing care plan based on the information gathered throughout this process.

Casey’s Model of Nursing

Anne Casey’s Model of Nursing emerged in the late 1980s and focused on nursing as it pertains to children. It helps nurses connect with both the pediatric patient and their family to provide optimal care. At the core of this theory is the idea that children are cared for best by their family members while receiving help from health care professionals.

Theory of Comfort

The Theory of Comfort emerged in the 1990s by Katherine Kolcaba. With this theory, nurses focus on providing clients with comfort as their primary objective. The idea behind this focus is that if the client’s basic needs are met, the client will naturally experience some relief, which is the first step in the three stages of comfort.

After relief comes to ease and then transcendence.

Tidal Model

The Tidal Model also emerged in the 1990s. It was spearheaded by Phil Barker, who worked to combine nursing with psychiatry by helping people through experiences of distress. This model helps patients navigate these negative moments through the 10 Commitments of:

• Valuing the voice and experiences of the patient
• Respecting the language used by the patient
• Having a true curiosity about the patient and their experiences
• Having an outlook like an apprentice to learn
• Using the tools available to help the patient
• Helping the patient see the next step
• Helping the patient understand and experience the gift of time
• Using personal insights and wisdom
• Understanding that the only thing constant in life is change
• Being transparent throughout the process

Self-Care Deficit Theory

Dorothea Orem developed the Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory throughout her career from the early 1950s to 2001. Under this understanding of nursing, patients want to care for themselves but need assistance sometimes.

In the Theory of Self-Care Deficit, nurses can help patients by empowering them to do as much as they can independently. According to Orem’s self-care model, as the patient improves, the nurse encourages the transition for the patient to do even more by themselves.

Cultural Care Theory

The Cultural Care Theory, created by Madeleine Leininger, states that nursing care needs to align closely with the patient’s personal beliefs. In other words, the individual’s religious beliefs, cultural practices, and values should play an important role in the nursing interventions the patient receives.

This can be particularly important for those working in transcultural nursing and can help nurses put their nursing knowledge to use in a way that benefits the patient directly.

Theory of Interpersonal Relations

The Theory of Interpersonal Relations arose from the work of Hildegard Peplau. Peplau believed that nursing should revolve around the back and forth in the relationship between the patient and the nurse.

Instead of seeing the nurse as simply fulfilling the doctor’s orders and the patient simply receiving treatment, this modern nursing theory shifts the role of nurses by emphasizing the relationship between the nurse and the patient.

Adaptation Theory

The Adaptation Theory was developed by Sister Callista Roy, and focuses on the interconnected systems that a patient experiences as part of the nursing process. The interrelated systems of patients within their families and social groups, as well as various human life processes, form the focus of this nursing theory.

In the adaptation model, nurses help patients navigate and maintain balance in spite of these different conditions.

Nursing Need Theory

The Nursing Need Theory emerged from works by Virginia Henderson. Henderson and the Need Theory focused on the patient’s basic human needs and encouraged their independence throughout their time in the hospital.

The hope is that by following this model, patients don’t need to be hospitalized longer than necessary and that progress in the patient’s condition isn’t delayed.

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List Of Nursing Theories and Theorists – Summary of Nursing Theories and Understanding Nursing Models

Nursing theories consist of coherent groups of broad propositions used as fundamental principles of explanation, are derived from existing conceptual frameworks, and are classified based on scope and purpose. Here’s a summary of nursing theories and models commonly applied in contemporary practice.

Nursing theories and theorists

At the heart of professional nursing lies a rich history of theories and theorists who have paved the way for modern nursing.

When we define nursing, we talk about more than just the essential care provided by a nurse; we delve into a complex system of nursing theories that shape every aspect of nursing practice.

The journey from the first nursing theory to the comprehensive frameworks that now guide nursing education and interventions demonstrates the evolution of thinking within this vital discipline.

• These frameworks, or grand nursing theories, provide nurses with broad perspectives on patient care. In contrast, middle-range nursing theories address more specific situations and relationships, such as nurse and patient interactions.
• The nursing meta paradigm, which includes person, Health, environment, and nursing, reflects how diverse yet coherent the field has become.
• It encapsulates crucial concepts in modern nursing and inspires continuous improvement in care through research and practice.

Renowned nurse theorist Virginia Henderson’s ’21 Nursing Problems’ is a seminal work defining the scope of providing comprehensive nursing care.

Meanwhile, transcultural nursing pioneers like Madeleine Leininger emphasize the importance of cultural competency across various patient demographics.

These contributions advance the profession and inspire countless nursing students eager to contribute to this ever-evolving field.

Specific nursing theories also serve as cornerstones within educational curricula for those pursuing a healthcare career. From rigorous study in a nursing program to hands-on experiences guided by practice-level nursing theories, aspiring nurses learn to integrate theoretical knowledge with clinical application.

However, fundamental to all these is the nursing model. This conceptual framework intertwines all aspects, from defining care plans to implementing effective interventions that address patients’ individual needs based on their unique conditions .

Incorporating these elements equips nurses to meet complex challenges within the healthcare system and makes visible the intrinsic value of a comprehensive theory in everyday practice.

As we advance into an era of enriched research and dynamic clinical demands, Virginia Henderson’s nursing need theory highlights the importance of addressing psychological and physiological needs.

Nursing theories help guide educators and practitioners as they endeavor to meet these needs with empathy, skill, and understanding.

Main concepts of nursing theory

• Philosophy of Science in Nursing: “Examining nursing concepts, theories, laws, and aims as they relate to nursing practice.
• Concept: a word or phrase that captures the essence of something; definition or description of the idea is one proposition; the building blocks of theory; Image or symbolic representation of an abstract concept: for example, cup, chair, rain, intelligence, presence, caring, pain, weight, self-concept, self-esteem.
• Conceptual definition: general meaning based on the theory— similar to a dictionary definition. These are important to compare the results of other studies of the same concept. If the definitions of the concept differ from study to study, there is no quantitative way to summarize the data regarding that concept.
• Operational definition : defines the specific direction of how a concept is measured. How an idea is measured in the study may be indicated by the words as evidenced by or as measured by
• Conceptual model: Very abstract and general works that lead to theory development and can guide research and practice; enable nurses to view the world from a unique perspective. Diagrams are typically used to show themes and link concepts through symbols.
• Praxis: “The planned, deliberate, and thoughtful creation of a plan of action to achieve a set goal” (Polifroni, 2015, p. 11). Practice, action, or practical application of theory.
• Theory: A worldview; Representation of reality whose purpose is to describe, explain, and predict phenomena of interest; Set of interrelated constructs [concepts], definitions, and propositions which specify the relationships; made up of ideas and propositions about a phenomenon of interest; Diverse works from a theorist’s point of view;

Theories range from “very abstract and general conceptual models to less abstract and general grand theories, to relatively concrete and specific middle-range theories, to very concrete and specific narrow-range, situation-specific theories” (Fawcett, 2013, p. 593).

Theories are derived from conceptual models. Theories are NEVER proved, only tested: Research strengthens, refutes, or refines the theory tested.

• Nursing theory is a well-organized and systematic articulation of a set of statements related to questions in the discipline of nursing.
• A nursing theory is a set of concepts, definitions, relationships, and assumptions or propositions derived from nursing models or other disciplines.
• It projects a purposive, systematic view of phenomena by designing specific inter-relationships among concepts for describing, explaining, predicting, and prescribing.

The main concepts of nursing theory can broadly be classified into three categories:

• The Four Metaparadigms of Nursing
• Grand Nursing Theories:
• Middle-Range Nursing Theories:

Nursing Metaparadigm

Metaparadigms: “a set of concepts and propositions that sets forth the phenomena with which a discipline is concerned.

A metaparadigm is the most general statement of a discipline and functions as a framework in which the more restricted structures of conceptual models develop” (Miller-Keane Dictionary, 2003); “The concepts that identify the phenomena of central interest to a discipline; the propositions that describe those concepts and their relationships to each other” (Farlex Dictionary, 2009).

The main concepts within most nursing theories include the four significant meta paradigms: Person, Health, Environment, and Nursing.

• Person: This meta paradigm focuses on the individual receiving care. It considers the individual’s biological, psychological, sociocultural, spiritual, and cognitive aspects. A person is viewed as unique with intrinsic worth and dignity, each with individual experiences and responses to Health and illness.
• Health: Different nursing theories may define Health in varied ways, but it generally encompasses the overall wellness of a person, including physical, mental, and social well-being. It is not simply the absence of illness or infirmity but a dynamic state of overall wellness.
• Environment refers to the surroundings or context within which care is delivered. It includes any external factors that can potentially affect the person’s Health. These factors can be physical (like cleanliness or temperature), social (like cultural norms or family support), or even policy-related (like healthcare laws).
• Nursing: This paradigm revolves around the actual nursing practice – what nurses do, their roles, actions, behaviors, and patient interactions. It describes the essence of nursing and its care provision that promotes Health, prevents illness, facilitates healing, and helps patients cope with illness or end-of-life considerations.

Additionally, nursing theories often talk about other important concepts, such as:

• Adaptation: Nurses assist individuals in adapting to changes in physiological processes, self-concept, role function, and interdependent relationships during Health and illness.
• Caring: Many theories emphasize caring as fundamental to nursing practice – acts that convey concern, empathy, and patient support.
• Communication: Effective communication skills are essential for nurses to accurately assess patients’ needs and provide appropriate care.
• Nursing Process: A systematic methodological approach to planning and providing individualized patient care based on assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation/intervention, and evaluation.

Each theorist defines the metaparadigms according to their worldview. For example, Orem’s definition of the nursing metaparadigm differs from Martha Rogers’ or Sister Callista Roy’s definitions. Orem defines the Person metaparadigm as “an integrated whole,” Martha Rogers as “an energy field,” and Roy as a “biopsychosocial being. )

ypes of Nursing Theories

Nursing is steeped in rich scholarly tradition, with nursing theories forming the backbone of clinical practice. These theories offer frameworks that inform the training and education in the nursing field and contribute to the advancement of nursing knowledge.

Nursing theories are typically organized into three levels: grand nursing theories, middle-range theories, and practice-level or situation-specific theories. Grand nursing theories are broad in scope and provide overall frameworks for nursing ideas. In contrast, middle-range theories may address specific areas of nursing, being less abstract than the grand theories. Practice-level theories are the most concrete and are often formulated to guide interventions within a particular nursing practice field.

Florence Nightingale, often cited as the founder of modern nursing, introduced the first nursing theory, emphasizing the importance of a healing environment. This paved the way for countless other nursing theorists who have shaped our understanding of practical nursing care.

• One such theory is Dorothea Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory. This framework stated that nursing “ought to signify” assisting individuals in their self-care activities to maintain Health. Orem’s model is a prime example of how nursing models can formulate an effective nursing care plan.
• Another significant contribution is Faye Abdellah’s “21 Nursing Problems Theory,” which underlines a patient-centered approach to nursing and sets a precedent for incorporating a rigorous assessment process as part of the broader nursing process theory.
• Nursing models like Betty Neuman’s System Model of Nursing reflect on patient well-being by considering various environmental stressors and the body’s reaction to them – emphasizing holistic health nursing.
• Middle-range theories, such as Casey’s Model of Nursing—are vital in guiding nurses through levels of development, offering insights into the proficiency and competency gained through experience in different nursing roles.

These varied nursing theories help direct education in settings such as nursing schools, where theoretical work informs clinical practice and classroom learning.

Theories can also provide a systematic approach to understanding complex patient conditions – they are situation-specific tools valuable in creating coherent strategies that result in quality patient care.

Moreover, this theoretical work helps distinguish the unique contribution that nurses make to healthcare services and emphasizes why our collective value system should regard these perspectives with high esteem – acknowledging that practical nurse theorist work brings clarity to theoretical constructs surrounding critical concepts like health promotion, disease prevention, and rehabilitation which are central to impactful health nursing interventions meaningful interpretation) to provide theory-based implications for practice.

Levels of Nursing Theories

Nursing theories are vital to nursing, providing a foundation for patient care and guiding the nursing process. They are organized into three levels of nursing theories: grand, middle-range, and practice-level.

Grand Nursing Theories

Grand nursing theories are broad and complex, offering a comprehensive perspective on nursing. They are often philosophical and highly abstract, addressing the fundamental principles that apply across various situations.

Grand nursing theories are the most abstract of the three nursing theories, including middle-range and practice-level nursing theories. They aim to provide frameworks for nursing ideas, concepts, and principles related to the entire field of nursing.

An example of a grand nursing theory is Florence Nightingale’s environmental theory, wherein she stated that nursing “ought to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth, cleanliness, quiet, and the proper selection and administration of diet – all at the least expense of vital power to the patient.” Nightingale is often regarded as the founder of modern nursing.

Here is a list of Grand nursing theories with summaries for each:

• General Systems Theory – Imogene King: – This theory is based on the concept that an individual’s personal, interpersonal, and social systems interact dynamically with their Health. It emphasizes goal setting by the nurse and patient as they work together to ensure the patient reaches their optimal level of wellness.
• Modeling and Role-Modeling Theory – Erickson, Tomlin, and Swain: This theory posits that nursing care should be based on the uniqueness of the individual. The nurse should model behaviors that encourage positive interactions to promote Health.
• Transcultural Nursing (formerly Culture-Care) – Madeleine Leininger: This theory focuses on caring and cultural factors influencing the patient’s Health and well-being. Nurses are encouraged to provide culturally respectful care that aligns with the patient’s traditions and practices.
• Conservation Model – Myra Estrine Levine: The theory focuses on conserving or preserving energy, integrity, and personal and social functioning. The model guides nurses to help clients conserve their power to promote healing.
• Health as Expanding Consciousness – Margaret Newman: This theory suggests that every individual exists in a reality made up of interactions with the environment and that Health is the expansion of consciousness.
• Nursing Process Theory – Ida Jean Orlando: Orlando’s theory revolves around the interaction between nurses and patients, emphasizing action based on observation. The key component is identifying the patient’s immediate need for help through nurse-patient interaction.
• Theory of Human Becoming – Rosemarie Rizzo Parse: Parse’s theory focuses on man being free to choose fate, leading them to transcendence. It emphasizes the personal interpretation of life events rather than the events themselves.
• Humanistic Nursing – Josephine Paterson and Loretta Zderad: This approach considers both the nurse’s and the patient’s experiences. The relational dialogue between nurse and patient promotes healing, where both grow through the experience.
• Interpersonal Relations Model – Hildegard E Peplau: Peplau’s model highlights the interpersonal process between nurses and patients, which involves four phases: orientation, identification, exploitation, and resolution.
• Science of Unitary Human Beings – Martha E Rogers: Rogers’ model views individuals as whole beings who cannot be divided into parts but have to be studied in their entire context. It emphasizes a unified interaction with their environment.
• Roy Adaptation Model – Sister Callista Roy : This conceptual model lays out a framework for nursing practice by seeing an individual as an adaptive system affected by internal biological mechanisms and external environmental factors.
• Philosophy and Theory of Transpersonal Caring – Jean Watson : Watson’s theory focuses on human care relations among caregivers, environment/society, and recipients, which help improve healing processes by promoting Health from a place of love and caring.
• Emancipated Decision-Making in Health Care – Wittman-Price : This framework empowers nurses to create collaborative relationships with patients, facilitating informed decision-making relevant to healthcare choices and emphasizing autonomy.
• Self-Care Theory – Dorothea Orem: Orem’s self-care deficit nursing theory encourages patients to perform self-care duties effectively, improving their recovery rate. Nurses evaluate patients’ needs for self-care against their abilities, devising plans for care or education accordingly.

Middle-range theories

Middle-range theories are less abstract than grand nursing theories and are more specific to particular aspects of nursing care. These theories can also provide a framework for exploring specific phenomena in nursing. For example, Dorothea Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory focuses on patients’ ability to perform self-care and how nurses can assist in meeting these needs.

Types of middle-range theories for Nursing Students

• Descriptive (describe a phenomenon, “information presenting”);
• Explanatory (specify how concepts are related to each other to explain the phenomenon of interest, “knowledge building”);
• Predictive (specify how one concept affects one or more other concepts, “knowledge confirming”);
• Prescriptive (“knowing utilization”).

Nursing Theory : “A relatively specific and concrete set of concepts and propositions that purports to account for or characterize phenomena of interest to the discipline of nursing” (Fawcett, 1989, p. 23). Usually focuses on healthcare experiences, conditions, or events;

Theoretical Framework: Provides a frame of reference for current practice and future study. It provides the rationale for the predictions of the relationships between the variables of interest and, therefore, provides a structure for research studies .

The purpose of researching a study is to determine if the predictions they hypothesize are valid; that is— does the theory hold in the real world?

Theoretical frameworks can be thought of as Road Maps.

Theoretical frameworks: Provide directions for practicing nursing according to a philosophical bent, analytic or continental. Guide the design and conduct of research by helping the researcher decide whom to sample , sample selection, data collection process, forms, how to analyze the data, etc. They help to make sense of the meaning of the study (meaningful interpretation) to provide theory-based implications for practice.

At the most concrete level are practice-level or situation-specific theories, which provide frameworks for addressing particular types of problems in clinical practice. Imogene King’s Theory of Nursing Systems falls into this category and guides how nurses interact with patients to formulate an effective nursing care plan.

Here’s a list of middle-range nursing theories

• The Framework of Systemic Organization – Marie-Louise Friedemann This theory posits that individuals are organized systems that adapt to their environment through systemic organization. It suggests that well-being is achieved when personal needs are balanced, and one’s lifestyle is organized effectively within environmental contexts.
• T heory of Group Power within Organizations – Christina Sieloff Sieloff’s theory addresses power dynamics within healthcare organizations, particularly among nursing groups. It outlines how nurses can enhance their group power to influence decisions and outcomes within their work environment.
• Theory of Comfort – Katharine Kolcaba Kolcaba’s Theory of Comfort is defined as the immediate experience of being strengthened by addressing the human needs for relief, ease, and transcendence in four contexts: physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural.
• Theory of Maternal Role Attainment- Ramona Thieme Mercer Mercer’s theory focuses on the process by which a mother learns to interact and form an attachment to her newborn child. It describes the stages of role attainment: anticipation, formal, informal, and personal.
• Nurse as Wounded Healer – Marion Conti O’hare This concept refers to the notion that nurses who have experienced personal hardships can empathize with patients and use their healing experiences to provide compassionate care.
• Synergy Model – AACN Developed by the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses (AACN), this model asserts that patient outcomes are improved when nurse competencies are synergized with patient needs across various levels of healthcare.
• Behavioral Systems Model – Dorothy Johnson Johnson’s model views individuals as behavioral systems composed of subsystems constantly interacting to maintain balance. The nurse identifies disturbances in this system and provides care to restore equilibrium.
• Quality of Nursing Care Theory – June H Larrabee Larrabee developed an evidence-based model for determining nursing care quality. The model emphasizes measuring outcomes against established standards to improve patient care and gain insight into the effectiveness of nursing practices.
• Theory of Unpleasant Symptoms – Elizabeth R Lenz and Linda C Pugh This theory integrates multiple factors (physiological, psychological, situational) that influence the experience and reporting of symptoms. It aids in understanding how symptoms affect patient outcomes.
• Advancing Technology, Caring, and Nursing – Rozzano C Locsin Locsin’s theory revolves around integrating technology into nursing to enhance care rather than depersonalize it. He stresses that technology should complement the nurse’s caring capacity.
• Health Belief Model – Blanche Mikhail Mikhail’s adaptation emphasizes patients’ beliefs about health conditions, which predict their health-related behaviors. It suggests these beliefs—about susceptibility, severity, benefits, barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy—influence whether individuals will adopt healthy behaviors.
• Theory of Uncertainty in Illness – Merle Mishe l Mishel explores how uncertainty affects patients coping with chronic illness or cancer diagnoses. According to her theory, strategies such as information-seeking, finding meaning, and maintaining hope all help manage the uncertainty associated with illness.
• Understanding these levels helps nurses use nursing theories effectively. Middle-range and practice-level theories may more directly apply to daily clinical practice due to their more focused scope than grand theories. Lydia Hall’s Care, Cure, Core model or Virginia Henderson’s 21 Nursing Problems Theory illustrate practical approaches to direct patient care.

Nursing education often emphasizes various nursing models and frameworks alongside clinical skills, from Casey’s Model of Nursing, which emphasizes the emotional aspect of patient care, to more recent adaptations encompassing different spheres like health nursing or mental health care.

It is beneficial for graduates from nursing school to become familiar with different levels of nursing theories because they offer valuable insights into effective patient care. Each theory provides an opportunity for professional growth by deepening one’s understanding of holistic patient needs and enables one to formulate an effective care plan and contribute substantially to advancing one’s nursing knowledge.

Overall, health professionals in the nursing field must recognize the importance of these theoretical underpinnings as they shape the approach to care delivery within our modern healthcare systems—making it possible to address current challenges and adapt flexibly to evolving healthcare demands.

Practice-level Theories

Practice-level theories are crucial in social work and psychology that guide professionals in their client interventions. The following is a list with summaries for each theory:

• Psychodynamic Theory: This theory is rooted in the work of Sigmund Freud and focuses on how internal processes such as drives, desires, and unconscious motivations shape an individual’s behavior. It emphasizes the importance of early childhood experiences and posits that addressing unresolved conflicts from the past can help individuals achieve personal growth.
• Behaviorism: Founded by John B. Watson and further developed by B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism contends that human behavior can be understood by examining the relationship between stimuli and responses. It highlights the effects of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviors and is commonly used in modifying problematic behaviors.
• Cognitive Behavioral Theory (CBT): Developed by Aaron Beck, CBT works on the premise that an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected. By changing negative thought patterns and beliefs, CBT aims to influence emotions and actions positively.
• Humanistic Theory: Originating with theorists like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this approach emphasizes the inherent goodness of individuals and their potential for personal growth. It advocates for unconditional positive regard, empathy, and active listening in therapeutic settings.
• Systems Theory: This theory looks at individuals within the context of their broader environment, including family, social networks, and community systems. It believes that changes in one part of the system can cause changes in other parts, requiring a holistic approach to interventions.
• Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura’s concept revolves around observational learning — people can learn behaviors by watching others. It posits that learning occurs within a social context through modeling, imitation, and identification.
• Solution-Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT): This therapy is future-focused, goal-directed, and centers on solutions rather than problems or symptoms. SFBT works under the assumption that clients have the resources to create change and helps them identify past successes to construct solutions for current difficulties.
• Narrative Therapy: This postmodernist approach views people as separate from their problems, allowing individuals to rewrite their life narratives through storytelling. It encourages clients to rely on their skills and knowledge to manage problems and reframe their experience positively.

List of Nursing Theories and Nurse Theorists

Florence nightingale’s environmental theory model of nursing.

• Background: Florence Nightingale was an English social reformer and statistician, often considered the founder of modern nursing. Renowned for her work during the Crimean War, she was a trailblazer in the nursing field.
• Main concept: Nightingale introduced the environmental theory, which emphasizes the importance of a patient’s environment in aiding recovery. Her theory revolved around adjusting environmental factors, such as cleanliness and ventilation, to promote healing.
• Application in Practice: Her principles have profoundly impacted hospital sanitation, design, and nursing practices focused on creating therapeutic environments.

Hildegard E. Peplau Interpersonal Relations Theory Model of Nursing

•  Background: An American nurse and psychologist famous for her work in psychiatric nursing.
•  Main concept: Introduced the interpersonal relations theory, which stresses the importance of the nurse-patient relationship in healing.
•  Application in Practice: This theory underpins many mental health nursing strategies today, focusing on understanding patient needs and building trust.

Virginia Henderson – Need Theory

•  Background: Often referred to as the “first lady of nursing,” Henderson was an influential nurse, researcher, theorist, and author.
•  Main concept: Offered a definition of nursing and introduced the Need Theory, focusing on increasing patients’ independence to promote their continued healing after hospitalization.
•  Application in Practice: The Need Theory led to the development of a widely used nursing assessment form.

Faye Glenn Abdellah 21 Nursing Problems Theory

•  Background: A pioneer in nursing research, Abdellah served as a nurse officer and developed educational programs.
•  Main concept: The 21 Nursing Problems Theory was developed to emphasize delivering holistic care and addressing patient needs.
•  Application in Practice: This theory helped transition from disease-centered care to patient-centered care.

Ernestine Wiedenbach – The Helping Art of Clinical Nursing conceptual model

•  Background: A nurse educator known for her contribution to maternal-infant nursing.
•  Main concept: Proposed that nursing is an art guided by four main elements: philosophy, purpose, practice, and art.
•  Application in Practice: Influenced education by stressing clinical judgment skills and intentionality in nursing actions.

Lydia E. Hall – 3 Cs Model of Nursing – Care, Cure, Core Theory

•  Background: Recognized for her contributions to nursing theory with a focus on rehabilitation patients.
•  Main concept: Presented the Care, Cure, Core Theory that emphasizes three aspects: care defines what nurses do; cure is the domain of health professionals; and the core is embodied by patient autonomy.
•  Application in Practice: Inspired models that focus on comprehensive care surrounding patients’ emotional needs alongside medical treatment.

Joyce Travelbee – human-to-human relationship model of Nursing

•  Background: She was an early psychiatric nurse theorist who wrote extensively on the human-to-human relationship model in nursing.
•  Main concept: The human-to-human relationship model focuses on interpersonal aspects of the nurse-patient relationship rather than just task-oriented services.
•  Application in Practice: This model has guided nurses toward understanding patients’ experiences leading to compassionate care.

Kathryn E. Barnard Child Health Assessment Interaction Model

•  Background: A nurse researcher known for her work with infants and young children.
•  Main concept: Pioneered the Child Health Assessment Interaction Model (CHAIM), focusing on improving outcomes through better interactions between children and caregivers.
•   Application in Practice: Influential in developing parenting interventions and caregiving strategies focusing on nonverbal communication cues.

Evelyn Adam – conceptual framework for nursing practice education

• Background: Contributed to developing a conceptual framework for nursing practice education. 
•  Main concept: Advocated for Conceptual Models of Nursing that orient learning experiences toward problem-solving actual health issues rather than abstract practice. 
•  Application in Practice: Guided curricula design with practical application-focused narratives around conceptual frameworks.

Nancy Roper, Winifred Logan, and Alison J. Tierney -The Roper–LoganTierney Model of Nursing

•  Background: Responsible for creating one of nursing’s most utilized models worldwide – The Roper–LoganTierney Model of Nursing. 
•  Main concept: Their work involves applying a model based on activities of living (ALs), which are vital throughout life spans and applicable for health promotion or illness management. 
•  Application and Practice: The model remains widely applied today across various settings providing a holistic viewpoint on patient well-being beyond immediate medical needs.

Ida Jean Orlando -Deliberative Nursing Process Theory.

• Background: Orlando was an influential nursing theorist who developed the Deliberative Nursing Process Theory.
• Main concept: Her theory emphasizes the interaction between the nurse and the patient, the individualization of care, and the use of the nursing process to identify and meet patient needs.
• Application in Practice: Her work has led to a focus on improving patient-nurse communication and has influenced nursing education and clinical practice approaches.

Jean Watson – Theory of Human Caring

• Background: Watson is renowned for her Theory of Human Caring, which she introduced in 1979.
• Main concept: Her theory suggests that caring is central to nursing and includes ten carative factors that contribute to holistic healing processes.
• Application in Practice: The application has resulted in the incorporation of holistic health practices and the promotion of a caring healing environment in healthcare settings.

Marilyn Anne Ray – Theory of Bureaucratic Caring

• Background: Ray is known for her Theory of Bureaucratic Caring for nursing practice in complex organizations.
• Main concept: Her theory highlights the importance of caring within organizational cultures and how it influences outcomes for both patients and healthcare institutions.
• Application in Practice: This theory has informed leadership and management practices in nursing, emphasizing caring as integral to organizational effectiveness.

Patricia Benner – Novice to Expert Model

• Background: Benner is recognized for her work on clinical competence and skill acquisition in nursing.
• Main concept: She developed the Novice to Expert Model, which outlines five levels of development through educational growth and clinical experience.
• Application in Practice: This model is used extensively in clinical settings for nurse career development pathways.

Kari Martinsen -Philosophy of Caring

• Background: Martinsen is a Norwegian nursing theorist noted for her work on care philosophy with an emphasis on compassion.
• Main concept: She argues that care should be based not just on medical science but also on empathy, warmth, and understanding qualities derived from phenomenology.
• Application in Practice: Her theory places significant value on interpersonal relationships in caregiving practices.

Katie Eriksson – Theory of Carative Caring

• Background: Eriksson’s work centers on caring science, which she sees as intrinsic to nursing.
• Main concept: Her theory conceptualizes health as well-being relating not only to illness but also to human suffering, care, health processes, and consolation.
• Application in Practice: Eriksson’s theories are applied through reflective nursing practices and educational curriculums focusing on comprehensive patient care perspectives.

Myra Estrin Levine’s Conservation Model of Nursing

• Background: Levine was an American nurse theorist who developed the Conservation Model.
• Main concept: Her model focuses on conserving energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity to promote healing.
• Application in Practice: Levine’s Conservation Model guides nurses through holistic assessments leading to interventions around conservation principles.

Martha E. Rogers – Theory of Human Beings

• Background: Rogers introduced the Science of Unitary Human Beings as a way to elaborate nursing as a science that is distinct from medical knowledge.
• Main concept: Her theory focuses on persons as integral to their environment and emphasizes wellness promotion over disease treatment.
• Application in Practice: This approach has inspired therapeutic modalities that correspond with environmental considerations and noninvasive techniques.

Dorothea E. Orem SelfCare Deficit Nursing Theory (SCDNT)

• Background: Orem is best known for developing the SelfCare Deficit Nursing Theory (SCDNT).
• Main concept: Her theory underlines self-care as a fundamental aspect of nursing care, postulating that patients want to take more responsibility for their health conditions when they are able.
• Application in Practice: Orem’s SCDNT has been vital in creating patientcentered care plans encouraging autonomy and empowerment among patients.

Imogene M. King -Theory of Goal Attainment

• Background: King introduced the theory of goal attainment, which highlights the dynamic relationship between nurse-patient interactions.
• Main concept: The central tenet is that nurse-patient communications impact goal-setting, problem-solving, and achievements within therapeutic relationships.
• Application in Practice: The theory informs goaldirected care planning processes where mutual setting of objectives plays a central role.

Sister Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model:

• Sister Callista Roy, an influential nursing theorist, developed the Adaptation Model of Nursing. She earned a Master’s in nursing from the University of California and furthered her studies with a doctoral degree in sociology. 
• Her model focuses on the concept that humans are biopsychosocial beings constantly interacting with their environment and adapting to changes. 
• In practice, nurses assess patients’ adaptation levels and intervene to promote adaptation in four modes: physiological-physical mode, self-concept to group identity mode, role function mode, and interdependence mode.

Dorothy E. Johnson’s Behavioral System Model:

• Dorothy E. Johnson proposed the Behavioral System Model, emphasizing the importance of balance and stability in health. 
• With a background in nursing and psychology, Johnson’s theory conceptualizes individuals as having a system comprising seven behavioural subsystems, each with its structure and function. 
• The theory has been applied in practice by assessing patient behaviours as an indicator of their health status and designing interventions to achieve balance within the subsystems.

Anne Boykin and Savina O. Schoenhofer’s Nursing as Caring Theory:

• The Nursing as Caring Theory, created by Anne Boykin and Savina O. Schoenhofer, views nursing as an expression of caring for others as part of being human. 
• Dr. Boykin has a background in nursing education while Dr. Schoenhofer holds a PhD in nursing theory development. 
• Their model encourages nurses to foster personal caring relationships with patients, not merely address their conditions or diseases; this approach can be applied across all areas of nursing practice.

Afaf Ibrahim Meleis’ Transitions Theory:

• Egyptian-born Afaf Ibrahim Meleis is known for her development of the Transitions Theory which addresses the human experiences during life transitions and healthillness events. 
• Educated at the University of Pennsylvania where she also served as a professor, her theory is particularly useful for guiding research and practice in understanding patient experiences during significant life changes such as aging, illness, or relocation.

Nola J. Pender’s Health Promotion Model:

• Nola J. Pender created the Health Promotion Model that motivates individuals to engage in healthy lifestyles. 
• With a PhD from Northwestern University, her model highlights factors that influence health behaviors including personal experiences, and feelings influencing perceived benefits/consequences. 
• This approach has been integrated into health promotion programs emphasizing preventive care.

Madeleine M. Leininger’s Cultural Care Diversity and Universality Theory:

• Madeleine M. Leininger introduced the concept of transcultural nursing through her Cultural Care Diversity and Universality Theory. 
• She holds a doctorate in cultural anthropology, which infused her understanding that culturally competent care is crucial for effective nursing practice
• This framework guides nurses in providing care that is culturally respectful and compatible with patient values.

Margaret A. Newman’s Health as Expanding Consciousness:

• Margaret A. Newman’s theoretical work led to Health as an Expanding Consciousness which posits that every person in every situation is part of a universal process of expanding consciousness – a process involving the recognition of disease as one among numerous patterns influencing one’s health status
• It has inspired many nurses to consider holistic approaches encompassing physical but also emotional & spiritual well-being.

Rosemarie Rizzo Parse’s Human Becoming Theory:

• Rosemarie Rizzo Parse developed the Human Becoming Theory asserting that life is about becoming all one can become within a universe comprising mutual interaction.
• It urges nurses to honor each individual’s subjective experience & personal reality rather than focusing solely on objective observations which can inform holistic patient-centred care practices.

Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain’s Modeling and role-modeling Theory:

• Developed by Helen Erickson along with colleagues Evelyn Tomlin & Mary Ann Swain, the Modeling and Role-Modeling Theory assumes every individual brings unique personal models based on their perceptions & experiences
• it directs nurses to tailor interventions based on individual beliefs & goals promoting strength-based instead of deficiency-focused care principles.

Gladys L. Husted and James H. Husted’s Symphonological Bioethical Theory:

• The husband and wife team Gladys L. Husted & James Husted formulated the Symphonological Bioethical Theory, proposing that ethical dilemmas are resolved through an agreement resembling a symphony among those involved.
• It encourages ethical decision-making through collaborative discussion directly applicable to patient care dynamics, highlighting respect for persons & mutual decision-making processes.

Betty Neuman Systems Model

• Background: Betty Neuman is a nursing theorist who developed the Neuman Systems Model. She began her nursing career in 1947 after graduating from the People’s Hospital School of Nursing in Akron, Ohio. Later, she earned her Bachelor’s in Public Health Nursing and her Master’s in Mental Health, Public Health Consultation, from UCLA.
• Main Concept: The Neuman Systems Model centres on the individual’s relationship to stress, its reaction, and dynamic reconstitution factors.
• This model considers patients holistically and provides a framework that depicts individuals as being enclosed by layers of defence mechanisms against stressors.
• Application: In practice, this theory is applied to assess patient needs through the identification of stressors, establish interventions to improve patient stability, and maintain or restore an optimal state of wellness. It fosters a comprehensive view of client assessment for nurses to provide tailored care plans.

Ramona T. Mercer Maternal Role Attainment Theory

• Background: Ramona T. Mercer graduated from the University of Pittsburgh with a focus on Maternity Nursing. She developed the Maternal Role Attainment Theory which later evolved into the Becoming a Mother theory.
• Main Concept: Mercer’s theory addresses how women transition into their role as mothers. It focuses not just on immediate postpartum adjustments but also on the maternal identity that develops over time as women interact with their infants and receive social support.
• Application: This theory is particularly useful in preparing and supporting women during pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum by guiding healthcare professionals in identifying stages of motherhood adaptation and providing appropriate interventions for new mothers’ challenges.

Merle H. Mishel Uncertainty in Illness Theory

• Background: Merle H. Mishel is known for advancing nursing science through research and theory, notably with her uncertainty in illness theory, which was derived from her PhD work at UCLA.
• Main Concept: Mishel’s Uncertainty in Illness Theory explores how patients cope with uncertainty related to illness and its outcomes. It distinguishes between stimuli that are viewed as ambiguous, complex, unpredictable, or probabilistic.
• Application: Clinicians apply this theory by offering interventions that help manage uncertainty levels, which can influence patient psychological adjustment. Understanding this helps nurses provide accurate information and support to patients facing unpredictability associated with illness or treatment.

Pamela G. Reed Self-Transcendence Theory

• Background: Pamela G. Reed is a nursing theorist recognized for her Self-Transcendence Theory, which emphasizes the personal growth and expansive developmental tendencies of humans. 
• Main Concept: Reed’s Self-Transcendence Theory highlights an individual’s capacity to transcend self boundaries amidst challenging life situations like aging or chronic illness essentially becoming more aware of oneself within the larger context of life forces.
• Application: Nursing care incorporating this theory might focus on promoting activities that aid self-transcendence such as reflective thinking or storytelling, thus encouraging patients to find meaning even in adverse circumstances.

Carolyn L. Wiener and Marylin J. Dodd’s Theory of Illness Trajectory.

• This theory focuses on understanding the complex nature of chronic illness and how it affects patients and their families over time. Carolyn L. Wiener’s background in sociology and Marylin J. Dodd’s in nursing provided a multidisciplinary approach to their work. 
• The main concept behind the Theory of Illness Trajectory is that chronic illness is not a static event but a dynamic and evolving process that encompasses multiple phases, from diagnosis through treatment to potential end-of-life care. 
• In practice, this theory guides healthcare professionals in providing comprehensive care that addresses the physical and psychosocial dimensions of chronic diseases.

Georgene Gaskill Eakes, Mary Lermann Burke, and Margaret A. Hainsworth’s Theory of Chronic Sorrow.

• This theory addresses the ongoing sadness that often accompanies chronic illness or disability, either within oneself or a loved one. 
• The theory posits that this sorrow is cyclical rather than continuous, with triggers that can cause grief reactions at various points across the lifespan. 
• In actual practice settings, this theory helps clinicians recognize and validate clients’ feelings of loss and supports coping strategies to manage these emotions.

Phil Barker created the Tidal Model of Mental Health Recovery

• Emphasis on personal storytelling as a healing process. Barker’s psychiatric nursing background influenced his appreciation for narrative and person-centred therapy. 
• The central tenet of the Tidal Model is that people with mental health problems can be empowered to lead their recovery by telling their stories and detailing their experiences, thoughts, and feelings constructively. 
• Practically, mental health nurses utilize this model to focus on individualized care plans that prioritize patients’ personal goals and promote empowerment in recovery.

Katharine Kolcaba’s Self-Transcendence Theory

• Background: Katharine Kolcaba, an American nursing theorist and professor, developed her Comfort Theory in the early 1990s after a rich career in nursing that was initiated by her graduation in 1965. With a focus on enhancing patient care, her work emphasizes the importance of comfort in the healthcare environment.
• Main Concept: Kolcaba’s Comfort Theory revolves around the idea that nursing is about enhancing comfort across three forms: relief, ease, and transcendence. Relief refers to the alleviation of discomfort, ease pertains to a state of contentment or calmness, and transcendence is overcoming challenges. The theory places comfort as the immediate desirable outcome of nursing care.
• Application: In practice, Kolcaba’s theory encourages healthcare providers to assess patients’ comfort levels thoroughly and implement strategies to address discomfort across physical, psychospiritual, environmental, and sociocultural dimensions.

Cheryl Tatano Beck Postpartum Depression Theory

• Background: Cheryl Tatano Beck is a distinguished University of Connecticut School of Nursing professor. With a nursing background and a focus on postpartum depression and traumatic childbirth experiences, Beck has contributed significantly to both theoretical and evidence-based practices in nursing.
• Main Concept: Beck’s theory primarily addresses Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) after childbirth. She explores how traumatic childbirth experiences impact mothers’ mental health and emphasizes understanding these experiences as a foundation for providing effective care.
• Application: Beck’s insights are used to frame healthcare interventions aimed at preventing or managing PTSD related to childbirth. Nurses use her findings to offer better psychological support and counselling services for new mothers.

Kristen M. Swanson’s Theory of Caring

• Background: Kristen M. Swanson is known for her theoretical work while serving as the Dean at the College of Nursing at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Her work is underpinned by her extensive experience since receiving her R.N. degree in 1975.
• Main Concept: Swanson’s Theory of Caring defines caring as a central nursing attribute and describes five processes central to it: knowing, being with, doing for, enabling, and maintaining belief. This framework captures the essence of patient-centered care.
• Application: Swanson’s theory guides nurses in developing deep connections with patients through empathy and understanding. It helps shape behaviors that demonstrate caring across all patient interactions.

Cornelia M. Ruland and Shirley M. Moore Peaceful end-of-life theory

• Background: Cornelia M. Ruland and Shirley M. Moore are recognized for their collaborative work on the Peaceful end-of-life theory developed while working at Case Western Reserve University.
• Main Concept: Their theory posits that patients’ quality of life during their final days can be vastly improved if nurses provide care with an awareness towards peace and comfort goals for patients facing terminal illness.
• Application: The application involves nurses setting achievable goals for comfort management, symptom relief, maintaining dignity, creating a supportive environment for families, and helping patients achieve a sense of peace at the end-of-life stage.

Wanda de Aguiar Horta’s Nursing Process Theory

• Background: A prominent Brazilian nurse theorist, Wanda de Aguiar Horta was instrumental in developing the Nursing Process Theory during the 1970s which was influential in Brazil’s nursing practice development.
• Main Concept: Horta’s theory was centered around systemizing nursing care through assessment, nursing diagnosis, planning, implementation, and evaluation components now fundamental to modern clinical practice.
• Application: Structuring patient care with a systematic approach that includes documentation feedback loops for continued assessment and adjustment of care plans ensures comprehensive patient care that dynamically addresses biological psychological and social needs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

• Background: Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, developed this theory in psychology that is now extensively applied across disciplines.
• Main Concept: The theory outlines a five-tier model of human needs, visualized as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down must be satisfied before individuals can attend to higher-level needs.
• Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses use this framework to prioritize patient care by ensuring that fundamental physiological needs are met before progressing to higher-level psychosocial needs.

Selye’s General Adaptation Theory (Stress Theory):

• Background: Hans Selye, an endocrinologist known for his studies on stress response, developed this theory.
• Main Concept: It describes how the body responds to stress with an initial alarm reaction followed by resistance and finally exhaustion.
• Application in Nursing Practice: This theory helps nurses understand patient responses to illness or injury and manage patient care by minimizing stress-related responses.

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Model:

• Background: Erik Erikson was a developmental psychologist known for his theory on psychological development across the lifespan.
• Main Concept: The model outlines eight stages from infancy to late adulthood, each with its central crisis that must be resolved positively for healthy development.
• Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses apply this to ensure patients receive age-appropriate care and support through different life stages.

Lazarus & Folkman’s Theory of Stress and Coping:

• Background: Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman proposed this theory, focusing on cognitive appraisal and coping strategies as key components of the stress process.
• Main Concept: It emphasizes the relationship between personal appraisal of stressors and coping mechanisms.
• Application in Nursing Practice: The theory guides nurses in assessing patients’ perceptions of their health situations and helps develop personalized coping strategies.

Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory:

• Background: Lawrence Kohlberg was a psychologist who explored the development of moral reasoning based on cognitive development through his work.
• Main Concept: This model posits that moral reasoning develops through six sequential stages grouped into three levels (pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional).
• Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses utilize this framework to make ethical decisions about patient care and understand patients’ or families’ decision-making processes.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory:

• Background: Albert Bandura is a cognitivist who proposed that behavior is learned from the environment through observational learning or modelling.
• Main Concept: It asserts three core concepts—people learn through observation, internal mental states are essential to this process, and people can have agency over their actions (self-efficacy).
• Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses can apply this when educating patients by demonstrating healthy behaviors or creating a supportive environment that influences positive health practices.

Azjen & Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action & Theory of Planned Behavior:

• Background: Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein developed these related theories exploring how individuals decide to engage in behavior based on attitudes toward the behavior.
• Main Concept: They emphasize intention as the most significant predictor of behavior influenced by attitudes towards behaviors and societal norms.
• Application in Nursing Practice: These theories guide nursing interventions aimed at changing health-related behaviors by altering patients’ intentions through attitude modification.

Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations Theory:

• Background: Everett Rogers was a communication theorist who developed a model addressing how new ideas spread within cultures or social systems.
• Main Concept: It categorizes adopters into five segments based on their readiness to embrace new ideas (Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, and Laggards) assisting in understanding product adoption rates.
• Application in Nursing Practice: This helps nurses understand how patients may adopt new health practices or respond to new treatments. 

Freire’s Theory of Human Liberation:

• Background: Paulo Freire was an educationalist who focused on education as a tool for social change. 
• Main Concept: Freire’s approach involves dialogue with learners informed by respect for their knowledge and experiences. 
• Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses can apply Freire’s concepts when working with communities or patient groups aimed at promoting health literacy and empowering patient education.

21 Nursing Problems Theory

• The 21 Nursing Problems theory describes a set of patient care principles that guide nurses in addressing the diverse needs of their patients.
• This theoretical work in nursing was one of the first to be developed and demonstrates how nursing theories are situation-specific, reflecting various patient scenarios.
• Using nursing theories like the 21 problems theory, nurses can better understand how to prioritize and assess patient needs.
• These nursing theories are organized around the assumption that patients’ needs may range from physiological to psychological, stressing comprehensive care.
• Faye Abdellah’s work, which introduced this nursing model, is intended to provide a framework for nursing assessments, interventions, and evaluations.

Nursing Process Theory

• Nursing process theory is a systematic approach that guides nursing theories through assessment, planning, intervention, and evaluation.
• This framework emphasizes how nursing theories and theorists view the caregiving process as dynamic and continually evolving with each patient interaction.
• Middle-range nursing theories may incorporate nursing process aspects to enhance their applicability to clinical practice.
• The value of nursing theories, like the nursing process theory, lies in their ability to structure and improve the quality of patient care delivered by nurses.
• Practice-level nursing theories provide concrete strategies within the nursing process framework, enabling more effective care tailored to individual patient needs.

Nursing Needs Theory

• Nursing need theory outlines essential human needs and how nurses can assist in fulfilling them for better health outcomes.
• With its person-centric perspective, this theory describes how nurse-patient relationships are instrumental in ensuring all patient needs are met through holistic care.
• Using the theoretical work in nursing need theory helps nurses identify specific interventions that directly cater to individual patient circumstances.
• Nursing theories like the need theory stress that they are not static but instead adapt based on new findings from theories of similar disciplines or emerging healthcare challenges.
• Practical application to nursing practice based on need theory educates nurses on recognizing and responding to the nuanced requirements of diverse populations.

Borrowed theories in Nursing

Borrowed or Shared Theoretical Frameworks : theoretical frameworks from disciplines other than nursing used in the nursing domain. Nurses may use borrowed theories in conjunction with nursing theories to inform and guide practice (though theories should be examined for congruence with nursing ideals and situations).

Borrowed theories have been used in nursing theory development. Commonly “borrowed” theories include:

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Central Concept: The theory outlines a five-tier model of human needs, visualized as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down must be satisfied before individuals can attend to higher-level needs.
• Central Concept: It describes how the body responds to stress with an initial alarm reaction followed by resistance and exhaustion.
• Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Model
• Central Concept: The model outlines eight stages from infancy to late adulthood, each with its central crisis that must be resolved positively for healthy development.
• Lazarus & Folkman’s Theory of Stress and Coping
• Background: Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman proposed this theory, focusing on cognitive appraisal and coping strategies as critical components of the stress process.
• Central Concept: It emphasizes the relationship between personal appraisal of stressors and coping mechanisms.

Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory: Background: Lawrence Kohlberg was a psychologist who explored the development of moral reasoning based on cognitive development through his work. Central Concept: This model posits that moral reasoning develops through six sequential stages grouped into three levels (pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional). Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses utilize this framework to make ethical decisions about patient care and understand patients’ or families’ decision-making processes.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Background: Albert Bandura is a cognitivist who proposed that behavior is learned from the environment through observational learning or modeling. Central Concept: It asserts three core concepts—people learn through observation, internal mental states are essential to this process, and people can have agency over their actions (self-efficacy). Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses can apply this when educating patients by demonstrating healthy behaviors or creating a supportive environment that influences positive health practices.

Azjen & Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action & Theory of Planned Behavior: Background: Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein developed these related theories exploring how individuals decide to engage in behavior based on attitudes toward the behavior. Central Concept: They emphasize intention as the most significant predictor of behavior influenced by attitudes towards behaviors and societal norms. Application in Nursing Practice: These theories guide nursing interventions aimed at changing health-related behaviors by altering patients’ intentions through attitude modification.

Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations Theory: Background: Everett Rogers was a communication theorist who developed a model addressing how new ideas spread within cultures or social systems. Main Concept: It categorizes adopters into five segments based on their readiness to embrace new ideas (Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, and Laggards), assisting in understanding product adoption rates. Application in Nursing Practice: This helps nurses understand how patients may adopt new health practices or respond to new treatments.

Freire’s Theory of Human Liberation: Background: Paulo Freire was an educationalist who focused on education as a tool for social change. Main Concept: Freire’s approach involves dialogue with learners informed by respect for their knowledge and experiences. Application in Nursing Practice: Nurses can apply Freire’s concepts when working with communities or patient groups to promote health literacy and empower patient education.

1. Chaos and Complexity Theories: – Background: Originating in mathematics and physics, Chaos and Complexity theories analyze the behavior of complex systems. Nursing theorist Betty Neuman was known to have incorporated aspects of these theories into her Neuman Systems Model. – Main Concept: These theories assert that complex systems exhibit unpredictable behavior that can lead to order or disorder within an organization. In nursing, this indicates that patient care environments are unexpected and dynamic. – Application: Nurses use these theories to appreciate the inherent unpredictability in healthcare settings. This understanding helps them plan contingency and develop flexible, adaptive approaches to patient care.

2. Von Bertalanffy’s General Systems Theory: – Background: Proposed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy, this theory applies broadly across various disciplines, including nursing. – Main Concept: It emphasizes that systems cannot be understood fully by isolating their parts. Instead, one must study the system as a whole, as its elements are interrelated. – Application in Nursing: Nurses use this framework to view the patient holistically. When planning care, psychological, social, and biological aspects of the patient’s life are considered, understanding that changes in one aspect may affect others.

3. Lewin’s Change Theory: – Background: Developed by Kurt Lewin, a psychologist, this theory is heavily utilized in organizational change and nursing. – Main Concept: Lewin’s Change Theory involves three stages – unfreezing (recognizing the need for change), changing/moving (implementing change), and refreezing (making the change permanent). – Application in Nursing: In practice settings, nurses apply this theory when leading change initiatives – introducing new technology and protocols or assisting patients with lifestyle alterations for health improvement.

• Selye’s General Adaptation Theory (Stress Theory)
• Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory (Summary of Nursing Theories- Essay)
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
• Azjen & Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behavior
•  Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations Theory
• Freire’s Theory of Human Liberation
• Chaos and Complexity theories
• Von Bertalanffy’s General Systems Theory
• Lewin’s Change Theory

List of Nursing Theories

• Goal Attainment Theory
• Orem’s Self-care Deficit Theory
• Suchman’s Stages of Illness Model
• Betty Neuman’s Systems Model in Nursing Care
• Roy’s Adaptation Model in the Nursing Process
• Peplau’s Interpersonal Theory in the Nursing Process
• Health Belief Model in Nursing Practice
• Attachment Theory: John Bowlby
• Attribution Theory (Summary of Nursing Theories- Essay)
• Betty Neuman’s system model
• Behaviorist Theory
• Biopsychosocial Model
• Care, Cure, and Core: The Three C’s of Lydia Hall
• Comfort Theory by Katharine Kolcaba
• Cybernetics(Summary of Nursing Theories- Essay)
• Decision-Making Models
• Development of Nursing Theories
• Ernestine Wiedenbach’s “The Helping Art of Clinical Nursing
• Epistemology of Nursing
• Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
• From Novice to Expert: Patricia Benner
• Faye Glenn Abdellah’s Theory
• Functional Health Patterns by Majory Gorden
• Health Promotion Model
• Health Belief Model
• Helping and Human Relationships Theory: Robert R. Carkhuff
• Human Becoming Theory : Rosemarie Rizzo Parse
• Human-To-Human Relationship Model by Joyce Travelbee
• Grounded Theory in Nursing Research
• Gate Control Theory of Pain
• Germ Theory of Disease )
• Hans Selye’s Stress Theory
• Harry Stalk Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory
• Introduction to Nursing Theories
• Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
• Jean Watson’s theory )
• Johnson’s behavior system model
• Kurt Lewin’s Change Theory
• Laws (Principles) of Learning
• Learned Helplessness Model
• Levin’s Four Conservation Principles
• Life Perspective Rhythm Model by Joyce Fitzpatrick
• Martha Roger’s Science of unitary human beings
• Maslow’s Theory of Needs
• Modeling and Role Modeling Theory by Erickson, Tomlin & Swain
• McGill Model of Nursing by F. Moyra Allen
• Models of Prevention
• Models of Nursing Care Delivery
• Newman’s Health As Expanding Consciousness
• Nursing Theorists
• Nursing Theories: An Overview
• Nursing Theories and Research
• Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Theory
• Orlando’s Nursing Process
• Object Relations Theory
• Prochaska and DiClemente’s Stages of Change Model
• Psychoanalytic Theory
• Roy’s Adaptation Model
• Roper–Logan–Tierney Model of Nursing
• Systems Theory in Nursing
• Stress-Diathesis Model
• Stuart Stress Adaptation Model
• Self-efficacy Theory )
• Statistical Theory
• Theories Based on Interactive Process
• Theories of Florence Nightingale
• Theories Applied in Psychiatric Nursing
• Theories Used in Community Health Nursing
• Theories of Intelligence
• Theories of Learning
• Theory of Mind
• Theory of Interpersonal Relations:: Peplau
• Theory of Goal Attainment: Imogene King
• Theory of Chronic Sorrow
• Theory of Cognitive Dissonance by Leon Festinger
• Theory of Moral Development
• Theory of Evolution(Summary of Nursing Theories- Essay)
• Tidal Model of Mental Health Nursing
• Trajectory Model by Corbin & Strauss
• Transcultural Nursing
• Understanding the works of Nursing Theorists
• Virginia Henderson’s Need Theory )

 Importance of Nursing Theory

Nursing theories are integral to the profession, serving as a foundation upon which clinical practices are built and refined. They offer a variety of nursing perspectives that enrich the practitioner’s understanding and approach to patient care. It has often been stated that nursing “ought to signify” more than just the execution of tasks; it is about creating a therapeutic environment that fosters healing and well-being.

The following list illustrates the importance of nursing theories to practice:

• Establishing the Framework for Practice: Nursing theories provide a structured guide for nursing theories, helping nurses to understand their roles and responsibilities within the healthcare setting. This framework ensures that care is delivered with consistency and quality across various settings.
• Guiding Education and Research: Educational programs often use nursing theories to help develop curricula that produce competent and effective nurses. In research, these theories aid in forming hypotheses and interpreting study results, leading to evidence-based practice.
• Enhancing Nurse Autonomy: Through the use of nursing theories, nurses gain a defined body of knowledge unique to their profession, promoting respect and autonomy within the interdisciplinary team.
• Improving Patient Care: Nursing theories in practice lead to better patient outcomes as they provide tools for assessment, intervention, and evaluation of care. These theories ensure that nursing care is patient-centered and therapeutically effective.
• Assisting with Nursing Specialization: Nursing theories can also assist nurses in specializing in their practice, providing robust models tailored to specific populations or health issues.
• Reflecting Values and Beliefs: Nursing theories encapsulate the values and beliefs intrinsic to the profession – such as empathy, ethics, and commitment – ensuring that these principles remain at the core of all nursing activities.
• Promoting Personal Growth: Engaging with nursing theories can also encourage personal growth for nurses by challenging them to think critically about their practice, question existing systems, and strive for excellence in patient care.
• Shaping Policy Development: Given their comprehensive nature, nursing theories are important reference points in shaping health policies that impact both practitioners and patients.
• Facilitates Communication: Nursing theories provide a common language that allows nurses to communicate effectively with other healthcare providers about patient needs and care planning.
• Specificity Matters: It’s essential to note that nursing theories are more specific than broad medical theories because they directly address patterns of human responses to potential or actual health problems.

See also Behaviorist Theory in Nursing Practice: Understanding the Basics and Applications.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/.

Nursing Theories And Models FAQ

1. what are nursing theories and models.

Nurse theories and nursing models are frameworks that provide a structure for understanding, analyzing, and applying concepts within the field of nursing practice . These theories help to guide nursing care and decision-making in various healthcare settings.

2. What are Grand Nursing Theories?

Grand nursing theories are broad conceptual frameworks proposed by renowned nurse theorists that outline fundamental principles and concepts shaping the nursing profession . These theories often address the nursing metaparadigm and provide a holistic view of nursing.

3. How do Nursing Theories help in Nursing Practice?

Nursing theories help nursing students and professionals understand the underlying principles of nursing interventions and nursing care . By providing a systematic approach, these theories contribute to effective nursing practice and patient outcomes.

4. What are Middle-Range Nursing Theories?

Middle-range nursing theories focus on specific concepts and phenomena within the field of nursing . These theories bridge the gap between grand nursing theories and practice-level nursing theories , offering guidance for nursing interventions.

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Nursing Theorists and Theories in Nursing Practice

Nursing practice is a science that depends on a body of knowledge generated through observations, experimentation, and experience, otherwise known as nursing theories.

They are relevant for nursing practice and will most likely be tested in major nursing examinations. You will also probably write research papers, concept analysis papers, and essays on nursing theories.

Each nursing theory organizes concepts, frameworks, and philosophy that help to identify, define, and restrict what nurses do, why they do it, and how to do it.

In this ultimate guide, we will walk you through these theories. You will find information on nursing theories, including the concepts, levels, and a list of the most common nursing theories.

And although we only scratch the surface of what there is to learn about the theories, you can conduct comprehensive research on the respective theories based on the list we have provided. Finally, we wish you success in your nursing degree program; we bet that by the end of it, you will have mastered and expanded your knowledge of nursing theories.

Before anything else, let's get solid on the basics of nursing theories.

What are Nursing Theories? And what makes nursing theories?

Nursing theories refer to an organized body of knowledge that defines what nursing means, nursing practice, and the purpose of nursing practice . It is a collection of models, concepts, purposes, and frameworks that guide nursing practice at a specific and concrete level. The theories are the foundation of nursing practice

The theories help define nursing as a noble, unique, and essential discipline that is distinguishable from other fields such as pharmacy, medicine, chemistry, etc.

Nursing theories also help guide and define nursing care and provide a foundation for clinical decision-making. Since nursing is a science, it often borrows some of the theories from public health and customizes them to fit the context of nursing practice, which is why we have borrowed nursing theories.

Nursing theories contain concepts, definitions, propositions, relational statements, and assumptions to explain a phenomenon of interest. A phenomenon refers to an occurrence, event, situation, or process. The concepts are labels to the phenomenon -phrases that define, identify, and establish the structure for ideas generated by a phenomenon. Propositions are used to describe the relationships between concepts. Concepts can either be abstract - mentally structured or concrete -  developed through experience. Nursing theories have either t heoretical (relating to the theoretical perspective of the concept) or operational definitions (stating how the concepts are measured).

The relational statements define the relationships between the concepts in theory. On the other hand, assumptions are accepted truths based on values and beliefs that explain the nature of a nursing theory's relationships, structure, purpose, definitions, and concepts. You can symbolically represent a theory through words, diagrams, or mathematical models, which become your conceptual model .

Importance/Purpose of Nursing Theories

Across different professions, theories offer the foundation of practice. Nursing being a science, its entire practice is based on nursing theories. Nursing theories act as frameworks that shape the scope of nursing care and practice. It offers nurses guidelines when educating themselves, researching, and practicing care for their patients and themselves. There are many reasons why nursing theories are important:

• They provide a foundation for nursing practice and are essential in caring for patients. As a result, most magnet and academic hospitals consistently integrate nursing theories into their policies, SOPs, and guidelines to ensure best practice is achieved.
• Nursing institutions also use nursing theories to develop nursing curricula. Therefore, the nursing programs are designed with the concepts and models in mind. Besides, the skills that nurse students develop relate to various aspects of nursing theories.
• Nursing theories are also used in the nursing research process. They guide the research process by creating and testing a phenomenon of interest among a given population of interest. Such research enables nursing to address societal challenges and continuously offer means to advance caring through infusing theory, practice, and research. It promotes theory or evidence-based practice.
• Nursing theories are useful in generating concepts of efficient and effective care in the professional practice domain. Therefore, nurses in clinical practice can apply concepts and frameworks from these theories in critical clinical decision-making. It also helps nurses advocate for themselves and their patients. They shape nursing strategies.
• The theories define nursing as helping nurses to accept themselves, their roles, and their purpose in care settings.
• They also offer a foundation for nursing education by generating further knowledge and indicating the correct direction nurses should pursue in personal and professional development.
• Nursing theories also help maintain professional limits and boundaries.
• The theories offer a sense of identity that helps patients, nurses, managers, and other healthcare practitioners to acknowledge and understand the place of nurses and nursing in society.
• They also determine the information nurses gather, help nurses anticipate patient responses, and identify who needs care.
• Theories also help nurses articulate what they do for the patients and its rationale.
• They help nurses establish best practices, select productive research areas, determine the best interventions, and map out objectives and expected outcomes.
• Nursing theories can also influence the choice and development of PICOT questions .

Nursing theory, to a broader scope, helps knit together the systems, people, and settings in healthcare to influence nursing practice, capacity, and efficiency. The theories help nurses to care for themselves and their patients, interpret and address situations, and sustain nursing practice. Since nursing theories are ubiquitous, they also help standardize nursing practice, making it possible for nurses to operate anywhere in the world.

The Nursing Metaparadigm

A metaparadigm is a set of ideas that offer a structure for how healthcare discipline functions.

Metaparadigms comprise concepts that address the primary issues in a discipline, which helps map out the parameter and focus of the domain in question.

The metaparadigm of nursing comprises four main concepts tied to nursing theories: person, health, environment, and nursing. These 4 concepts form a foundation for nursing practice. They interrelate or interact to ensure nurses deliver holistic care. As such, nurses can view patients as holistic and independent persons. They also serve to address the health and environments of the patients and the responsibilities/duties of nurses.

While person, health, and environment relate to the patients, the nursing concept centers on nurses. These concepts define the scope of the context and content of being a nurse. When applied to a nursing process, these concepts allow for a complete approach to patient care.

the person in a nursing metaparadigm focuses on the multiple needs of those under the care of nurses. This includes the patients, their families, and their community.

The nurses can look at the patient's emotional, social, and spiritual aspects and consider them as people with physical needs.

With the holistic view, nurses can care for the patients by emphasizing the need for patients to express their emotions, seek spiritual support, and get social support from family and friends.

The basis of this metaparadigm is that people can be empowered to manage their health when they have positive personal connections.

The health concept relates to the patient's level of wellness when receiving care. It embodies the multiple factors that go into the patient's well-being, including the spiritual, emotional, social, physical, and intellectual components and how they can be integrated to ensure maximum health outcomes.

It considers the quality of healthcare across the lifespan, as health deteriorates, and past health issues can influence different stages and present problems later.

It extends beyond physical wellness and includes the patient's emotional, mental, spiritual, and social health. It also looks at the genetic composition. Nurses should consider all the factors to ensure that they select an efficient treatment plan for the patient.

Health might have different meanings considering patients, clinical settings, and healthcare providers.

Environment

The concept of the environment relates to the surroundings that affect the patient and influence their health and wellness. The premise of this concept is that altering the environment can improve health. It includes the positive and negative conditions or situations that influence the patient and the physical environment that affects families, friends, and close companions.

The nursing component of the metaparadigm addresses what the nurses do and what they know. It focuses on their character, skills, actions, and attributes on behalf of or in cooperation with the patient. Nursing can be defined in many ways depending on the nursing scholar. It focuses on providing safe, efficient, effective, timely, accessible, purposeful, and reasonable patient care for the best outcomes.

When analyzing a nursing theory, you will realize that some will define some components of the nursing metaparadigm while leaving others irrelevant to the theory. Likewise, you will find some theories encompassing some concepts while others have them all.

Classification (Types/Levels) of Nursing Theories

Nursing theories are logical, generalizable, and consistent with everyday observations. They provide a basis for nurses to test hypotheses and guide the nursing practice. Given their importance, nursing theories can be classified into three levels depending on abstraction: grand theory, middle-range theory, and practice-level (nursing practice) theory.

Let's explore each level in-depth.

Grand Nursing Theories

In a simple definition, grand theories are abstract, broad, and complex concepts that offer a general framework for nursing ideas relating to components such as people, environment, and health. They are primarily based on the experiences of the nursing theorists that postulate or develop them.

The grand nursing theories have the broadest scope for addressing diverse concepts and propositions that nurses are likely to encounter in their nursing practice. These theories are centered around conceptual frameworks and models for defining nursing practice in different situations and care settings and the ways of examining phenomena based on these points of view.

The grand nursing theories describe abstract nursing concepts that provide a framework for understanding nursing behavior and do not have too many details.

Examples of grand nursing theories include:

• Environmental theory by Florence Nightingale
• General systems theory by Imogene King
• Roy adaptation model by Sister Callista Roy
• Self-care theory by Dorothea Orem
• Philosophy and theory of transpersonal caring by Jean Watson
• Interpersonal relations model by Hildegard E Peplau
• Science of Unitary Human Beings by Martha E. Rodgers
• Humanistic nursing theory by Josephine Paterson and Loretta Zderad
• Theory of human becoming by Rosemarie Rizzo Parse
• Nursing process theory by Ida Jean Orlando
• Health as expanding consciousness by Margaret Newman
• Modeling and Role Modeling Theory by Erickson, Tomlin, and Swain
• Emancipated decision-making in healthcare by Wittman-Price

Florence Nightingale and Jean Watson are the two most popular grand theorists who have contributed to nursing theory by developing theories used in nursing practice, research, education, and administration.

Middle-Range Nursing Theories

The middle-range theories are more specific in focus and offer more concrete links between grand nursing theories and nursing practice. Notably, the concepts of the middle-range theories in nursing tend to be less abstract and more verifiable through testing or experimentation. In addition, these theories often describe, expound on, explain, and predict certain phenomena related to clinical practice.

Middle-range nursing theories focus on the concept and not all of the nursing, mainly including the concept's name within its title.

While the grand theories are broader and provide an overall framework for structuring ideas, the middle-range theories address narrowly defined phenomena and can be used to suggest an intervention.

Some of the most common middle-range theories include

• The framework of the systematic organization by Marie-Louise Friedemann
• Synergy model by AACN
• Health brief model by Blanche Mikhail
• Theory of uncertainty in illness by Merle Mishel
• Advancing technology, caring, and nursing by Rozzano C Locsin
• Behavioral systems model by Dorothy Johnson
• Quality of nursing care theory by June H Larrabee
• Nurse as a wounded healer by Marion Conti O'hare
• Theory of comfort by Katherine Kolcaba
• Theory of maternal role attainment by Ramona Theme Mercer
• Theory of group power within organizations by Christina Sieloff
• Acute pain management theory
• 11 functional health patterns by Gordon

Practice-Level Theories

The nursing practice theories focus on specific concepts relating to a defined patient population.

These theories are patient-centered and are often used by bedside nurses in their daily practice. They are scenario or situation-specific theories that focus on a specific patient group at a given time.

They directly influence nursing practice compared to the grand and middle-range theories. In most cases, these theories are interrelated with concepts from the middle-range and the grand theories.

Other Relevant Types of theories in nursing (Borrowed Theories)

The nursing discipline also uses theories other than the three primary levels of nursing theories we explored above. Mostly, these are referred to as borrowed theories because they are composed of philosophies and ideas borrowed from other fields and infused into nursing practice.

Ethical theories are used in nursing to address the dilemmas that arise during practice, which require decision-making. These theories explore the integrity and moral obligations of nurses. In addition, they address the use of technology, change in society, healthcare policies, and nursing care environments. The ethical principles in nursing include virtue ethics, principlism, deontology, and utilitarianism. Other ethical concepts that are even integrated into the nursing code of ethics provisions include justice, beneficence, autonomy, accountability, veracity, fidelity, and non-maleficence.

There are also change theories that focus on changing the nursing environment. These theories consider the drivers and resistance factors of change and how to implement change step-by-step. A typical example is Kurt Lewin's change theory of nursing. Other change theories that can be applied in nursing include:

• Lippitt's seven-step change theory
• Roger's five-stage change theory
• Transitions theory
• Spradley's eight-step model of change
• William Bridge's theory of transition
• Chaos theory
• Ronald Havelock's six phases of change
• Innovation diffusion theory

List of important Nursing Theorists and Theories

If you are assigned a nursing essay or research paper to apply nursing theories, you can choose one below, research it further and develop the paper. Make sure to introduce the theorist, the historical context of the theory, the definition of concepts of metaparadigm or theoretical assertions, major assumptions, relationship with other theories, empirical evidence, and application of the specific theory in nursing practice, leadership/management/administration, research, or education. Whence critiquing a theory, do so based on clarity, simplicity, generality, empirical precision, and deliverable consequences.

• Environment theory ( Florence Nightingale)
• Interpersonal theory ( Hildegard Peplau)
• Afaf Ibrahim Meleis � Transitions theory
• Anne Boykin and Savina o. Schoenhofer � The theory of nursing as caring: a model for transforming practice
• Betty Neuman - System model
• Butterfield Upstream Model for Population Health (BUMP Health) by Patricia G. Butterfield
• Dorothea Orem - Self-care deficit nursing theory (SCNDT)
• Dorothy Johnson - Behavioral systems model
• Ernestine Wiedenbach - The helping act of clinical nursing
• Fay Abdella - Twenty-One Nursing Problems
• Faye Glenn Abdellah - 21 Nursing problems Theory
• Ida Jean Orlando - Nursing Process theory
• Critical caring pedagogy by Peggy L. Chinn
• Imogene King - Goal Attainment theory
• Peace and Power by Peggy L Chinn
• Moving Beyond Dwelling in Suffering by Susan DeSanto-Madeya
• Theory of Integral Nursing by Barbara Dossey
• Lisa Campbell - Leveraging Resources model
• Quality-Caring Model-  by Joanne R. Duffy
• Conceptual Model of Nursing (Nursology) and Population Health by Carol Hall Ellenbecker
• Jean Watson - Philosophy and transpersonal caring model
• Kari Martinsen - Philosophy of caring
• Kathryn E. Barnard - Child health assessment model
• Katie Eriksson - Theory of Carative Caring
• Madeleine Leininger - Transcultural nursing theory
• Marilyn Anne Ray - The theory of bureaucratic caring
• Martha Rogers - Unitary Human beings
• Mayra Estrine Levine - Conservation model for nursing
• Winifred Logan - Roper-Logan-Tierney Model of Nursing Based on Activities of Living
• From Novice to Expert ( Patricia Benner)
• The Primacy of Caring by Patricia Berner
• Sister Calista Roy - Adaptation theory
• Virginia Henderson - Need Theory
• Lida Nikfarid - Human as Embodied Spirit theory
• The Core, Care, and Cure (Lydia E. Hall)
• Carolyn L. Wiener and Marylin J. Dodd - Theory of illness trajectory
• Cheryl Tatano Beck - Postpartum depression theory
• Cornelia M. Ruland and Shirley M. Moore - Peaceful end-of-life theory
• Ernestine Wiedenbach - The helping art of clinical nursing
• Georgene Gaskill Eakes, Mary Lermann Burke, and Margaret A. Hainsworth - The theory of chronic sorrow
• Susan Luck - Theory of Integrative Nurse Coaching
• Gladys L. Husted and James H. Husted - Symphonological bioethical theory
• Helen C. Erickson, Evelyn M. Tomlin, and Mary Ann P. Swain - Modeling and role-modeling theory
• Theory of Cultural Humility by Cynthia Foronda
• Theory of Emancipatory Compassion for Nursing by Jessica M. Gill
• Situation-Specific Theory by Eun-OK Im
• Donna J. Perry - Transcendent Pluralism
• Beck Cheryl Tatano - Theory of Traumatic Childbirth: The Ever-Widening Ripple Effect (Middle Range)
• Rural Nursing Theory by Helen J. Lee
• Elizabeth R. Lenz - Theory of unpleasant symptoms
• Theory of Self-Care of Chronic Illness by Anna Stromberg
• Conceptual Model of Nursing and Health Policy by Gail Russel
• Joyce Travelbee - Human-to-human relationship model
• Katherine Kolcaba - Theory of comfort
• Barret Elizabeth - Theory of Power as Knowing Participation in Change
• Kristen M. Swanson - Theory of caring
• Margaret A. Newman - Health as Expanding Consciousness
• Merle H. Mishel - Uncertainty of illness theory
• Nola J. Pender - Health Promotion Model
• Pamela G. Reed -   Self-transcendence theory
• Phil Barker - Barker's tidal model of mental health recovery
• Ramona T. Mercer - Maternal role attainment theory
• Rosemarie Rizzo Parse - Human becoming theory
• Loretta Zderad - Humanistic Nursing
• The Primacy of caring - Judith Wrubel

It is wise to state that nurse theorists such as Jean Watson, Rosemary Parse, and Martha Rogers are considered new worldview theorists. In addition, Myra Levine, Dorothea Orem, and Sister Callista Roy are referred to as contemporary nursing theorists. Finally, Florence Nightingale, Virginia Henderson, Hildegard Peplau, and Joyce Travelbee are considered early nursing theorists. This information can come in handy in your revision.

Related Reading: How to write a great nursing diagnosis .

Nursing Theory Topics to Consider

You can go through the list of nursing theory topic ideas below to develop a unique one on which you can write an entire essay or research paper. Then, if you are stuck, we can help you write a custom essay or research paper with original ideas, an organized presentation, and scholarly-based examples.

• The importance of integrating nursing theory into practice
• The Role of grand nursing theories in the nursing discipline
• Application of the comfort theory of Nursing in nursing education
• Contribution of Patricia Benner as a nursing theorist
• Nursing Theory and Plan of Care
• Application of Aristotle's ethical theory in nursing practice
• Using Kanter's and Neumann's theories to address nursing retention
• The Roy adaptation model and nursing practice
• Application of Soren Kierkegaard's Ethical Theory to Nursing
• Kant's deontology theory in nursing
• Solving nursing problems through nursing theory
• The impact of the American Idol Nursing Theory contest at the University of West Georgia
• How nursing leaders can use system theory
• Application of change theory in the inpatient nursing
• Role modeling theories and integral nursing
• Application of middle-range theories in nursing
• Use of psychological theories in Nursing
• Understanding borrowed theories in nursing
• Mother Roger's nursing theory
• How nursing theory affects nursing research
• Application of nursing theory in end-of-life Care
• The five essential components of Florence Nightingale's theory of nursing
• Relationship between nursing Theory and quality improvement
• Nursing theory and music therapy
• Using grand theories to solve ethical dilemmas
• Madeleine Hubble's nursing theory of cultural care diversity and Universality
• Applying nursing theories to forensic nursing
• The ultimate goal of nursing theory
• The contemporary nursing theorists and the relevance of their theories in current nursing practice
• Levels of theoretical thinking in nursing theory
• Differences and similarities Between Hildegard Peplau's and Jean Watson's Nursing Theory
• Are nursing theories the foundation of the nursing profession?
• Comparative Analysis of Watson's and Orem's Nursing Theory
• Benefits of incorporating nursing theories in hospital policies
• Do patients contribute to nursing theories?
• The historical development of nursing theories
• Application of the health belief model in healthcare planning

Nursing theories can help you understand the patient's ability and write a  medical plan and your nursing philosophy paper .  

Final Remarks

Knowing the nursing theory to use in your paper is one thing; you can easily do that from the examples of nursing theories we shared above. However, integrating the concepts and applying the nursing theory to a research topic can be difficult for many.

Related Reading:

• How to choose nursing research topics.
• Writing an Abstract poster for a nursing project/capstone
• Steps for writing a nursing capstone paper from BSN to DNP or Ph.D. in nursing.
• Nursing Research Paper Topics
• How to write a brief nursing care plan

NurseMyGrade team realizes that most nursing students either end up in remediation programs or spend more time and money on their education due to failure to deliver high-quality essays and research papers. We will do respective articles with nursing theories summaries. 

For that sole reason, despite striving to be a top nursing student resource, we also have a team of expert nurse writers to help you write nursing papers . They can help you with nursing theory papers and case studies.

Place an order, pay for it, and get a well-researched, edited, organized, and plagiarism-free nursing paper with your preferred nursing theory. The papers are in APA or Harvard format; you will also have free access to the reference list. Place that order today.

References (Links to External Websites)

• Nursing theory Development
• 5 Nursing Theories for Nurses Educators
• Nursing Theories and Models
• Nursing Theories
• Common Nursing- Nursing theories
• What is a Nursing theory? Key concepts for DNPs
• Understanding nursing theories
• Overview of Nursing Theories
• Intro to nursing theories
• Nursing theorists and theories

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38 Greatest Nursing Models & Theories To Practice By (Part 1)

The nursing profession has impressively evolved over time, and along with this transition came the development of different nursing theories.

These theories provide the foundation of nursing practice, specifically nursing assessment, intervention, and evaluation. They also offer a framework for generating knowledge and new ideas.

Nursing theory is the backbone of clinical care. Therefore, we have to know them all by heart. Here are 38 great nursing theories to practice by:

1 Maternal Role Attainment Theory by Ramona Mercer

This mid-range theory serves as a framework for nurses in providing appropriate health care interventions to mothers, helping them develop a strong maternal identity. The basic concept of the Maternal Role Attainment Theory is the developmental and interactional process, in which the mother bonds with her baby while acquiring competence and expressing joy in her role as a mother.

Ramona Mercer spent more than 30 years doing research about parenting in low and high-risk situations as well as transition into the maternal role. She began with a study of mothers who gave birth to infants with a birth defect (1971-1973). She focused next on teenage mothers during their first year of motherhood.

Mercer also participated in a cross-cultural comparison of mothers’ responses to cesarean and vaginal births. Her research has provided clinicians with information on how to make a difference in the lives of new parents.

2 Self-Efficacy Theory by Alberta Bandura

The Self-Efficacy Theory originated from the Social Cognitive Theory by Bandura. The latter states that there are three factors that influence self-efficacy: Behavior, environment, and personal factors. These factors affect each other, but the personal or cognitive factors are the most important.

According to Bandura, “motivation, performance, and feelings of frustration associated with repeated failures determine affect and behavior relations”. Self-efficacy, or the belief that one can manage one’s own health, is an important goal of health care providers, particularly in patients with chronic illnesses.

Born in Alberta, Canada, Bandura has done a great deal of work on social learning throughout his career and is famous for his “Social Learning Theory” (later renamed “Social Cognitive Theory”). Bandura focuses on the acquisition of behaviors. He believes that people acquire behaviors through the observation of others, and then imitation of what they have observed.

3 Tidal Model Theory by Phil Barker

The Tidal Model refers to “a philosophical approach to the discovery of mental health.” By using their own language, metaphors and personal stories, people begin to express something of meaning to their lives. This is the first step towards regaining control over their lives. The theory provides a framework for the exploration of the patient’s need for nursing care and the provision of individual care plans.

For nurses to begin the process of engagement using the Tidal Model, the following needs to be accepted: recovery is possible; change is inevitable; ultimately, the patient knows what is best for him or her; the patient possesses all the resources he or she needs to begin the recovery journey; the patient is the teacher, while the helpers are the pupils; and the helper needs to be creatively curious, and to learn what needs to be done to help the person.

Phil Barker was United Kingdom’s first professor of psychiatric nursing at the Newcastle University. He started out as a nursing assistant and eventually became one of the UK’s first nurse psychotherapists. His wife, Poppy Buchanan-Barker, also had her own contributions to the Tidal Model.

4 Life Perspective Rhythm Model by Joyce Fitzpatrick

The Life Perspective Rhythm Model includes the concepts of nursing, person, health, and environment. The model contributes to nursing knowledge by providing taxonomy for identifying and labeling nursing concepts. In this model, health is identified as a basic human dimension in continuous development.

The theory assumes that “the process of human development is characterized by rhythms that occur within the context of continuous person-environment interaction” and that nursing activities basically focus on enhancing the developmental process towards health. The model recognizes individuals as having unique biological, psychological, emotional, social, cultural, and spiritual attitudes. Optimum health is described as the actualization of both innate and obtained human potential, goal-directed behavior, and expert personal care.

Fitzpatrick earned her Bachelor of Science in Nursing from Georgetown University. She later founded and led the Bolton School’s World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Nursing and has provided consultation on nursing education and research throughout the world, including universities and health ministries in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East.

Fitzpatrick’s research has been focused on dimensions of meaningfulness in life, including the meaningfulness of nurses’ work as related to satisfaction, turnover, and empowerment.

5 Theory of Comfort by Katharine Kolcaba

The Theory of Comfort is a mid-range theory for health practice, education, and research. It has the potential to place comfort in the forefront of healthcare. In this model, nursing is described as the process of assessing the patient’s comfort needs, developing and implementing appropriate nursing care plans, and evaluating the patient’s comfort after the care plans have been carried out.

Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Katharine Kolcaba earned her diploma of nursing in 1965 from St. Luke’s Hospital School of Nursing. In 1997, she graduated with PhD Nursing from Case Western Reserve University and developed a website called The Comfort Line.

6 Four Conservation Principles by Myra Levine

According to this theory, every patient has varying range of adaptive responses, which depend on factors such as age, gender, and illness. The four principles in Levine’s model of nursing are conservation of energy, structural integrity, personal integrity, and social integrity. The goal is to promote adaptation and maintain wholeness by using the principles of conservation.

Born in Chicago in 1920, Myra Estrin Levine earned her diploma in nursing from the Cook County School of Nursing in 1944 and completed her Bachelor of Science in Nursing from the University of Chicago in 1949. She published Introduction to Clinical Nursing in 1969, with additional editions printed in 1973 and 1989.

7 Change Theory by Kurt Lewin

The Change Theory has three major concepts: driving forces, restraining forces, and equilibrium.

Driving forces are those that cause change to occur. They facilitate change because they push the patient in a desired direction. Restraining forces, on the other hand, are those forces that counter the driving forces. They hinder change because they push the patient in the opposite direction. Lastly, equilibrium is a situation wherein driving forces equal restraining forces, and no change occurs.

Kurt Lewin was born in 1890 in Germany. When his family moved to Berlin in 1905, he entered the University of Freiburg to study medicine, but opted to study biology instead, which prompted him to transfer to the University of Munich. He spent six months as a visiting professor at Stanford University in 1930. He then worked at Cornell University for the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station at the University of Iowa after his immigration.

Following World War II, Lewin was involved in the psychological rehabilitation of former displaced camp occupants at Harvard Medical School with Dr. Jacob Fine. He is now considered the father of social psychology.

8 Health Promotion Model by Nola Pender

The Health Promotion Model was designed to be a “complementary counterpart to models of health protection.” It defines health as a positive dynamic state rather than simply the absence of disease.

Health promotion is directed at increasing a patient’s level of well-being. It focuses on three areas:  individual characteristics and experiences, behavior-specific cognitions and affect, and behavioral outcomes. The theory underscores that each person has unique characteristics that may affect their actions.

Nola Pender earned her Bachelor and Master’s degrees from Michigan State University in 1964 and 1965, respectively. She earned her PhD from Northwestern University in 1969. She is the co-founder of the Midwest Nursing Research Society, and is currently serving as a trustee. Now a retiree, Pender also spends her time consulting on health promotion research nationally and internationally.

9 Twenty-One Nursing Problems Theory by Faye Abdellah

This theory includes ten steps used to identify the patient’s problems and eleven skills used in developing a nursing care plan.

The problems fall into three categories: physical, sociological, and emotional needs of patients; types of interpersonal relationships between the patient and nurse; and common elements of patient care. The patient needs are then divided into four categories which include basic to all patients, sustenant care needs, remedial care needs, and restorative care needs.

The twenty-one problems can be applied to the nursing process. In the assessment phase, the nursing problems provide guidelines for data collection.

Faye Glenn Abdellah was the first nurse officer to ever earn the ranking of a two-star rear admiral. She was also the first nurse and woman to serve as a Deputy Surgeon General. Her work helped change the focus of nursing from disease to patient’s needs. For her efforts, Abdellah was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame in 2000.

10 Need Theory by Virginia Henderson

The Need Theory has fourteen components: Breathe normally; eat and drink adequately; eliminate body wastes; move and maintain desirable postures; sleep and rest; select suitable clothes, dress and undress; maintain body temperature within normal range by adjusting clothing and modifying environment; keep the body clean and well-groomed and protect the integument; avoid dangers in the environment and avoid injuring others; communicate with others in expressing emotions, needs, fears, or opinions; worship according to one’s faith; work in such a way that there is a sense of accomplishment; play or participate in various forms of recreation; and learn, discover, or satisfy the curiosity that leads to normal development and health and use the available health facilities.

Henderson’s emphasis on the human needs as the central focus of nursing practice has led to the development of the theory regarding the needs of the person and how nursing can assist in meeting those needs.

Virginia Henderson, the Nightingale of Modern Nursing, was born in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1897. She earned her diploma in Nursing from the Army School of Nursing at Walter Reed Hospital, Washington, D.C. in 1921. In 1985, she was honored at the Annual Meeting of the Nursing and Allied Health Section of the Medical Library Association.

Henderson said that “the unique function of the nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities contributing to health or its recovery (or to peaceful death) that he would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge. And to do this in such a way as to help him gain independence as rapidly as possible.”

11 The Goal Attainment Theory by Imogene King

The Goal Attainment Theory describes a dynamic, interpersonal relationship in which a patient grows and develops to attain certain goals in life. The model has three interacting systems: personal, interpersonal, and social. Each of these systems has its own set of concepts.

According to King, a human being is a social being who is rational and sentient. He or she is able to perceive, think, feel, choose, set goals, select means to achieve goals, and make decisions. He or she has three fundamental needs: the need for health information when it is needed and can be used; the need for care that seeks to prevent illness; and the need for care when he or she is unable to help him or herself.

Born in West Point, Iowa, in 1923, Imogene King earned her nursing diploma from St. John’s Hospital School of Nursing in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1945. In 1948, she earned her Bachelor of Science in Nursing from St. Louis University and then completed her Master’s of Science in Nursing in 1957. In 1961, she earned her doctoral degree from Teachers College, Columbia University.

12 Energy Theory by Carl O. Helvie

The Helvie Energy Theory revolves around the concept of energy. The individual can be viewed as an energy field affecting and being affected by all other energy fields in the physical, biological, chemical and psychosocial environments as well as community subsystems through exchanges.

These exchanges of energy and individual success or failure in adaptation determine actual or potential placement on an energy continuum, and the need for assistance from the health practitioner. This theory is applied in practice through a process of assessing, planning, intervening, and evaluating.

Carl Helvie is a registered nurse who earned his masters in public health nursing focusing on wellness from the University of California. He then earned his second masters degree in public health and wellness from the John Hopkins University, and his post doctoral study in the Divinity school at Duke University.

In 1999, he was awarded the Distinguished Career in Public Health Award by the American Public Health Association. For 60 years, he became a nurse practitioner, educator, author, and researcher. He helped thousands of patients improve their health and taught around 4,000 graduate and undergraduate nursing students. In 2002, he taught at the University of Applied Sciences in Frankfurt, Germany and served as a nursing consultant to Russia.

13 Helping Art of Clinical Nursing Model by Ernestine Wiedenbach

In this model, nursing is defined as the practice of identifying a patient’s need through observation of presenting behaviors and symptoms, exploration of the meaning of those symptoms with the patient, identification of the cause of discomfort and the patient’s ability to resolve it. The goal of nursing consists primarily of identifying a patient’s need for help.

The theory identifies four main elements in clinical nursing: a philosophy, a purpose, a practice, and the art. It explains that knowledge encompasses all that has been perceived and grasped by the human mind.

According to the theory, a nurse uses two types of judgment in dealing with patients: clinical and sound. Clinical judgment represents the nurse’s ability to make sound decisions. Sound judgment, on the other hand, is the result of disciplined functioning of mind and emotions, and improves with expanded knowledge and increased clarity of professional purpose.

Born in Hamburg, Germany, in 1900, Ernestine Wiedenbach earned her Bachelor of Arts from Wellesley College in 1922, and her Registered Nurse’s license from the John Hopkins School of Nursing in 1925. She then earned her Masters of Arts from Teachers College, Columbia University in 1934.

In 1946, Wiedenbach earned a certificate in nurse-midwifery from the Maternity Center Association School for Nurse-Midwives in New York, and taught there until 1951. The following year, she joined the faculty of Yale University as an instructor in maternity nursing. She became an assistant professor of obstetric nursing in 1954.

14 Helping and Human Relationships Theory by Robert R. Carkhuff

The Helping and Human Relationships Theory concludes that our task in life is to improve the quantity and quality of our human experience as well as others’. When we use our helping skills effectively, we can be healthy and can help each other in actualizing our human potential. The only meaning to life is to grow, as growing is life.

Robert Carkhuff, Ph.D., is a social scientist who developed “The Science of Human Generativity”. He is known as the ‘Father of the Science of Human Relating’. His early works like ‘Helping and Human Relations’ and ‘The Development of Human Resources’ are still considered classics.

Carkhuff has been recognized as one of the “most-cited” social scientists in the 20th century. He is already among the most prolific scientists of the 21st century with more than 15 major works.

15 Activities of Living Nursing Model by Roper-Logan-Tierney

This theory centers on the patient as an individual and his relationship with biological, psychological, sociocultural, environmental, and politicoeconomic factors, among others. According to this model, the ‘individuality can be seen to be a product of the influence on the activities of all the other components and the complete interaction between them.’

Nancy Roper started her nursing career in Wetheral near Carlisle as a student. In 1943, when Roper became a state registered nurse, several of the nurse teaching staff had been called up as members of the Territorial Army. She gained a London University sister tutor’s diploma in 1950. She achieved MPhil degree at Edinburgh University in 1970, and then worked as the first nursing research officer for the Scottish Home and Health Department.

Winifred Logan earned her M.A. in Nursing from Columbia University in 1966. In the 1960’s to 1970’s, she was appointed as Nurse Education Officer at the Scottish Office. Later, she was able to establish nursing services in Abu Dhabi.

Allison Tierney was one of the very first nurses to earn a PhD in the United Kingdom. She was promoted as a personal chair in nursing research after ten years of working as the Director of Nursing Research at the University of Edinburgh. Later, she joined Roper and Logan as they began to develop, refine, and publish the Activities of Living Model.

16 Humanistic Nursing Theory by Paterson & Zderad

The Humanistic Nursing Theory applies both humanism and existentialism to nursing theory. Humanism tries to take a broader perspective of the individual’s potential and attempts to understand each individual from the context of their own personal experiences. Existentialism, on the other hand, is the belief that thinking begins with the human — the feeling, acting, and living individual. It emphasizes person’s free choice, self-determination and self-responsibility.

As soon as a patient and a nurse come together, nursing dialogue begins. The nurse presents herself as a helper who is ready to assist and care for the patient. She is open to understanding the patient’s feelings with the intention of improving it.

Dr. Josephine Paterson is originally from the east coast while Dr. Loretta Zderad is from the mid-west. They both were graduates of diploma schools and subsequently earned their bachelor’s degree in Nursing Education.

Dr. Paterson did her graduate work at Johns Hopkins and Dr. Zderad did hers at Catholic University. In the mid-fifties, they were both employed at The Catholic University and worked together to create a new program that would encompass the community health and psychiatric components of the graduate program.

Josephine Paterson and Loretta Zderad retired in 1985 and moved South where they are currently enjoying life. Although they are no longer active, they are pleased at the on going interest in their theory.

17 Transcultural Nursing Theory by Madeleine Leininger

In Transcultural Nursing, nurses practice according to the patient’s cultural considerations. It starts with a culturalogical assessment wherein the nurse considers the patient’s cultural background in assessing the health of the latter. The nurse then make a nursing care plan based on the culturalogical assessment.

In this theory, nurses have a responsibility to understand the role of culture in a patient’s health. Leininger identified three nursing actions that achieve culturally friendly care for the patient: cultural preservation or maintenance, cultural care accommodation or negotiation, and cultural care repatterning or restructuring.

Born in Sutton, Nebraska, in 1925, Madeleine Leininger is a registered nurse, and earned several degrees, including a Doctor of Philosophy, a Doctor of Human Sciences, and a Doctor of Science. She is also a Certified Transcultural Nurse, a Fellow of the Royal College of Nursing in Australia, and a Fellow of the American Academy of Nursing.

18 Theories of Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg

The Moral Development Theory consists of 6 stages of moral development which are divided into 3 levels. Created by Lawrence Kohlberg, it was inspired by Jean Piaget, a psychologist, and John Dewey, a philosopher.

The theory focuses on morality which is the system a person uses to determine what’s right and wrong. The answer to that is what forces a person to take action.

According to the theory, each level of moral development represents varying degrees of sophistication in the three levels of reasoning. It includes:

• Preconventional which relates to reasons according to one’s perspective
• Conventional which is based on the norms and rules of society
• Postconventional which uses the principle behind those social norms which direct behaviors.

The theory is a great help in understanding patients and the way they react to things and events. It can also enlighten nurses as to why patients behave the way they do.

Lawrence Kohlberg was born on October 25, 1927. He was an American educator and psychologist who became highly influential in education and psychology because of how his theory was able to explain in detail a child’s moral development.

19 Birth Order Theory by Alfred Adler

Alfred Adler believed that the development of traits and behaviors are affected by developmental issues. This included birth order.

In the theory, first-born children often need affirmation and are prone to becoming perfectionists. They are dominant and intellectual which can be attributed to the children’s effort to get back their parents’ undivided attention.

Second and middle children, on the other hand, tend to be more rebellious and competitive since there’s always a sibling who was there first. They are eager to be praised which is why they work hard to develop their gifts. They tend to be more diplomatic and flexible than the rest of the family.

Youngest and only children tend to be selfish since they are always being cared for by family members. They may have a hard time when people around them say no to their requests.

Born on February 7, 1870, Alfred Adler was a therapist and doctor who formed individual psychology or Adlerian psychology. He was one of the first people who worked hard to introduce mental health into education.

Continuation: 38 Greatest Nursing Models & Theories To Practice By (Part 2)

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Theorists & Theories

Explore our extensive collection of articles and guides on nursing theories and theorists. This comprehensive resource is designed to provide nursing students and professionals with in-depth knowledge of various nursing theories, their development, and the influential theorists behind them.

Key features include:

• Detailed Articles on Major Nursing Theories
• In-Depth Profiles/Biography of Influential Nursing Theorists
• Comprehensive Nursing Theories and Theorists Study Guide
• Historical Development of Nursing Theories
• Practical Applications of Nursing Theories in Clinical Settings

Enhance your understanding of the foundational principles that shape modern nursing practice. Delve into our full guide: Nursing Theories and Theorists Study Guide for a thorough exploration of key concepts and figures in nursing theory. Perfect for both students and practicing nurses aiming to deepen their theoretical knowledge and apply it effectively in their careers.

Imogene King: Theory of Goal Attainment

Imogene King was a pioneer in nursing and renowned for her development of the nursing theory: “Theory of Goal Attainment”. Get to know Imogene King’s biography, major concepts of her theory, and its application and impact in nursing. 

Nursing Theories and Theorists: The Definitive Guide for Nurses

In this guide for nursing theories, we aim to help you understand what comprises a nursing theory and its importance, purpose, history, types or classifications, and give you an overview through summaries of selected nursing theories.

Betty Neuman: Neuman Systems Model

Betty Neuman is a nursing theorist who developed the Neuman Systems Model.

Florence Nightingale: Environmental Theory

Get to know the concepts behind Florence Nightingale’s Environmental Theory in this study guide about nursing theories. Learn about Nightingale’s biography, her career, her works that shaped nursing. Next part is an in-depth discussion about her Environmental Theory, its metaparadigm, major and subconcepts, including its application to nursing practice. 

Dorothea Orem: Self-Care Deficit Theory

Dorothea Orem is a nurse theorist who pioneered the Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory. Get to know the biography and works of Orem, including a discussion about the major concepts, subconcepts, nursing metaparadigm, and application of Self- Care Deficit Theory. 

Hildegard Peplau: Interpersonal Relations Theory

Hildegard Peplau is a nurse theorist who created the Theory of Interpersonal Relations. Get to know Peplau’s theory and biography in this nursing theories study guide. 

Dorothy Johnson: Behavioral System Model

Dorothy E. Johnson proposed the Behavioral System Model Nursing Theory in 1968.

Faye Abdellah: 21 Nursing Problems Theory

Faye Abdellah formulated the 21 Nursing Problems theory that changed the focus on nursing care from disease-centered to patient-centered.

Ida Jean Orlando: Deliberative Nursing Process Theory

Ida Jean Orlando developed her Deliberative Nursing Process that allows nurses to formulate an effective nursing care plan that can also be easily adapted when and if any complexity come up with the patient.

Lydia Hall: Care, Cure, Core Nursing Theory

Learn about Lydia Hall and her nursing theory “Care, Cure, Core” model in this nursing theories study guide. Get to know Lydia Hall’s biography, career as a nurse, and an in-depth discussion of her nursing theory where we tackle the major concepts, assumptions, and its application to nursing. 

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What Are Nursing Theories?

Nursing theories help guide and define nursing care and provide a foundation for clinical decision-making . Some nursing theories have impacted the field of public health for hundreds of years and are still being used in modern hospitals and healthcare settings.

If you’re thinking about going to school to become a nurse, nursing theory will likely make up part of your curriculum. To help prepare yourself, read on to learn more about some of the most influential nursing theories.

The Metaparadigm of Nursing

A metaparadigm is a set of ideas that provides structure for how a healthcare discipline should function. The metaparadigm of nursing refers to the four main concepts tied to nursing theory: person, health, environment, and nursing.

The “person” component of the metaparadigm focuses on the receiver of care and the people in their life. It considers a patient’s social, spiritual, and healthcare needs. The theory is that a person can be more empowered to manage their health when they have positive personal connections.

The “health” concept realizes that multiple factors go into a patient’s well-being—including physical, emotional, intellectual, spiritual, and social components—and how they can be integrated to achieve optimal health outcomes.

Environment

This concept focuses on the immediate and extensive surroundings that affect a patient and how those surroundings can influence their health and wellness. It theorizes that a person can, to an extent, alter their environment to improve their health.

This aspect of the metaparadigm recognizes the relationship between a nurse and a patient. It focuses on the nurse’s role in providing a safe and caring environment and values the high degree of service necessary to deliver the best patient health outcomes.

There are a host of different research-based nursing models and theories that drive the practice and profession at large. These theories each incorporate the concepts of the metaparadigm of nursing, with specific nursing practice being shaped by the ideas of various nursing theorists and their models for nursing education and implementation.

What Are the Types of Nursing Theories?

All nursing theories are generally organized into three levels: grand, middle-range, and practice-level. Here’s a look at each:

Grand Nursing Theories

As the name implies, any theory that is based on broad, abstract, or complex concepts may fall under this category. Grand nursing theories typically provide a high-level framework for nursing ideas rather than diving into details.

Middle-Range Nursing Theories

Middle-range theories deal with specific areas of nursing as opposed to grand theories. These areas might stem from day-to-day nursing practices, research, or theories from similar disciplines.

Practice-Level Nursing Theories

Theories categorized in this level are the most focused. They deal with situation-specific concepts that are narrow in scope and concentrate on a particular patient population.

What Are Some Examples of Nursing Theories?

Some of the most common nursing theories include the following:

Environmental Theory

Known as the first nursing theorist and the founder of modern nursing, Florence Nightingale created the Environmental Theory in 1860, and its principles are still used today. She served as a nurse during the Crimean War, where she observed a connection between patients who died and their environmental conditions.

Nightingale’s Environmental Theory identifies five environmental factors—fresh air, pure water, efficient drainage, cleanliness, and sunlight—as essential factors in human health.

Casey’s Model of Nursing

Developed by Anne Casey in 1988, Casey’s Model of Nursing is considered one of the earliest nursing theories developed specifically for child health. This theory focuses on the nurse working in partnership with the child and their family. The philosophy is that the best people to care for a child are their family members with the assistance of health professionals.

Patient-Centered Approach to Nursing

Originating in the 1940s, Faye Abdellah’s patient-centered approach helps guide nursing education and is intended to direct how care is given in hospitals. Her theory outlines 10 steps to identifying a patient’s problem and discusses key skills to develop a proper treatment. The 10 steps include the following:

• Learn to know the patient.
• Sort out relevant and significant data.
• Make generalizations about available data in relation to similar nursing problems presented by other patients.
• Identify the therapeutic plan.
• Test generalizations with the patient and then make additional generalizations.
• Validate the patient’s conclusions about their nursing problems.
• Observe and evaluate the patient over time to identify attitudes and other clues affecting their behavior.
• Explore the patient’s reaction—and that of their family—to the therapeutic plan and involve them in the plan.
• Identify how relevant nurses feel about the patient’s nursing problems.
• Discuss and develop a comprehensive nursing care plan.

Theory of Comfort

Katharine Kolcaba’s Theory of Comfort was developed in the 1990s. According to the model, patient comfort is an immediate and desirable outcome of nursing care. Kolcaba describes comfort in three forms: relief, ease, and transcendence. If a patient’s comfort needs are met, they experience a sense of relief. As a patient’s comfort needs change, their nurse’s interventions adjust accordingly.

Tidal Model

Developed by nurse and psychotherapist Phil Barker in the 1990s, this model is widely used in mental health nursing and psychiatry. It centers on the fundamental care process, emphasizing values of social relationships and connection to help others in moments of distress. The Tidal Model draws from the “ Ten Commitments ,” which are designed to foster effective communication, empathy, honesty, and problem-solving between patient and nurse.

Self-Care Deficit Theory

Developed by Dorothea Orem between 1959 and 2001, the self-care deficit theory posits that those in the nursing profession can enhance patient care by allowing the patient to perform as much of their own self-care as they are capable of. This nursing model views patient recovery in a maturational way, meaning that as patients become more and more able, they are encouraged to take care of themselves while relying increasingly less on direct nursing involvement.

Cultural Care Theory

Madeleine Leininger’s cultural care theory promotes the idea that patient care should be culturally congruent. In other words, care should be administered in harmony with the patient's cultural or religious beliefs, practices, and values.

Peplau’s Therapeutic Nurse-Patient Theory

Hildegard Peplau’s theory of interpersonal relations highlights the importance of the various roles that nurses take on when caring for patients. Nurses that study and apply this theory can better understand how to establish expectations, answer questions, educate on relevant topics, offer support and encouragement, and advocate for patient success.

Virginia Henderson’s Need Theory

This theory teaches the significance of patient independence, especially after they’ve received all the care and treatment needed to recover. Henderson’s theory discusses the basic activities and practices that nurses must instill in their patients so that they will continue to be in good health once they’ve left healthcare facilities and returned to their day-to-day lives. At its core, need theory underscores the importance of patient self-reliance.

Why Are Nursing Theories Important?

Nursing theories provide a structural foundation for nursing students and professionals. As the field of nursing continues to grow, nursing theories play a key role in guiding patient care toward the most favorable possible outcomes. These theories...

• Provide nurses with rationale in making crucial healthcare decisions.
• Guide evidence-based research, which may then lead to the establishment of best nursing practices and policies.
• Help nurses evaluate patient care.
• Offer nurses a clear understanding of their purpose and role in a healthcare setting.
• Help patients, their families, and other healthcare professionals recognize the invaluable contributions of nurses.

If you’re looking to become a nurse in any number of healthcare fields, consider studying at WGU. An online nursing degree program at WGU is a great way to gain a deeper understanding of nursing theories and acquire the career-relevant skills you’ll need to thrive, whether you’re an aspiring student nurse or hoping to advance in your current nursing position.

Additionally, WGU’s competency-based learning model lets you advance through coursework as quickly as you show mastery of the material, so you can potentially graduate faster and save money. Learn more today.

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