- Subject Guides
Academic language: a Practical Guide
Analytical and critical language.
- Academic language
- Audience & purpose
- Formal language
- Objective and impersonal language
- Explicit and clear language
- Active & passive voice
- Grammar & syntax
Analysis and criticality are essential to academic writing, and getting the language right will help you build a logical and coherent argument.
What is analytical language ?
Analytical language involves a systematic examination of the subject matter.
It involves dissecting and interpreting information, organising it into coherent arguments or insights, comparing and contrasting different viewpoints, and drawing conclusions .
What is critical language ?
Critical analysis goes a step further than just analysis. It involves a deeper level of engagement with the material, questioning assumptions , and evaluating the strength of arguments and evidence.
Through critical analysis, you challenge the material , offer new interpretations , and scrutinise the validity of the information and its sources.
How to be analytical:
Comparing involves focusing on and/or discussing the similarities of two elements :
"Both academic writing and professional writing use a somewhat formal tone."
Contrasting involves focusing on and/or discussing the differences between two elements :
"While professional writing tends to use a first-person point of view ('I'), academic writing uses the more objective third-person point of view ('he' or 'she')."
Evaluating involves making judgements on the value of the information by answering questions like:
- what next?
"The survey results indicate that more effort is required to address the issue in the UK’s higher education sector."
Consider multiple viewpoints
This involves taking into account different people’s opinions or points of view :
"Environmental activists continue to have their voice heard in order to save the woodland just outside the city arguing that it plays a crucial role in the quality of the air the residents of the city breathe. On the other hand, Walden City motorists urged the government to pass the bill to build a new ring road to ease traffic congestion during rush hour."
Explanation involves clarifying an idea or giving reasons to justify a position , which may include providing more details or relevant facts:
"Efficiency refers to the ability to accomplish a task or achieve a goal with the least amount of wasted resources, time, or effort. In simple terms, it involves doing things in the most effective and economical way possible. A process or system is considered efficient when it maximises output while minimising input and avoiding unnecessary steps or resources."
Provide rationale
The rationale refers to the justification or reason for a decision or choice. In academic contexts it is mainly used to refer to the controlling principle in a study or piece of research:
"This study is motivated by the gaps identified in existing literature, which suggest that current teaching methods may not fully address diverse learning needs or cater to different cognitive styles."
Draw conclusions
Drawing a conclusion usually means arriving at the ultimate meaning of something : simply mentioning/describing facts is not enough; we need to be able to say why these facts are important to us...
"After conducting an in-depth study examining the relationship between regular physical exercise and mental well-being, it can be concluded that engaging in consistent physical activity is associated with significant positive effects on mental health."
Make suggestions
Offering suggestions involves presenting ideas or plans for others to think about based on your analysis:
"In light of the increasing global emphasis on environmental sustainability, it is recommended that our university undertake comprehensive measures to enhance its commitment to eco-friendly practices."
Support with evidence
Supporting your argument with evidence means providing information from your observations , readings , or other experiences that convinces others of a fact or truth:
"A substantial body of evidence supports the argument that incorporating technology into teaching methodologies positively influences student learning outcomes. One key piece of evidence is the comprehensive meta-analysis conducted by Smith et al. (2019), which synthesised data from over 50 studies examining the effects of technology-enhanced learning. The findings consistently demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in student achievement and engagement when technology was strategically incorporated into the curriculum."
How to be critical:
Understand & interpret.
Show an understanding of the material you are working with through relevant examples...
Useful wording:
- This seems to illustrate/demonstrate that...
- This might lead to…
- This indicates…
"This research on climate change seems to illustrate that rising sea levels are correlating with increased coastal erosion, leading to… This indicates a need for robust coastal defences."
Reason logically
Present your reasoning and explain how your conclusions are drawn from logical analysis, from your examination of the text, or from reflection.
- Consequently...
"Considering the rapid decrease in bee populations, it is imperative to reassess our pesticide usage policies."
Question in an exploratory way
Explore questions such as ' why ?', ' what if ?', ' what are the implications ?', and ‘ so what ?’; delve into the implications and underlying reasons...
"Why does this trend persist despite numerous policy changes? What if the underlying assumptions are flawed? What are the broader implications for social equality?"
Consider alternatives
Identify alternative interpretations or approaches concerning your reading material and/or practice:
"While some scholars advocate for a quantitative approach to social research, qualitative narratives offer a different, more personal perspective on the data."
Synthesise perspectives
Demonstrate your comprehension of the relationship among diverse ideas, evidence, or perspectives:
"This aligns with Taylor’s concept of X … Building upon the work of Gareth (2012), while Walker (2018) proposes/suggests…"
Find practical applications
Demonstrate an understanding of how theories or research findings apply in your practical context:
"Applying Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in classroom settings can enhance individual learning paths."
Recognise limitations
Identify and discuss the potential shortcomings or limiting factors of a piece of research or a particular theory. Understand how these limitations relate to your own arguments or specific context:
"In the area of multicultural education…"
"Regarding the learning environment in the maths classroom…"
For more help advice on the practicalities of criticality, take a look at:
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- Last Updated: Dec 4, 2024 2:49 PM
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- StudySkills@Sheffield
- Academic writing skills
- Critical writing
How to write critically
This page will explore the key features of critical writing to help you to demonstrate your critical thinking abilities in your work.
What is Critical Writing?
A paragraph or section of critical writing (sometimes called critical analysis) will demonstrate not only that you have read one or more sources, but also that you understand what the implications of the sources are for your own work.
Critical writing is likely to involve the following stages, organised within a single paragraph or across multiple paragraphs in a longer section of analysis:
- Describing the evidence: what does the source tell us? If you agree with it, use strong reporting language (Jones et al (2012) demonstrate, Jones et al (2012) identify ). If not, show your scepticism with weak reporting language (Jones et al (2012) argue, Jones et al (2012) claim)
- Identifying limitations or gaps: Is the research robust? What limitations have the authors themselves identified? Does other research help to fill in the gaps?
- Highlighting alternatives: Are there other possible interpretations? Does other research contradict the findings? Has there been a chronological development of the field (ie have views changed over time?)
- Synthesising sources to show your interpretation: Can you summarise your position based on the process you have followed above? What does this mean for your argument or hypothesis?
Download this Critical analysis framework template to help structure your analysis of multiple sources according to the stages above.
Access the Critical analysis framework (Google doc)
Description or Analysis?
You might read about the need to demonstrate critical thinking, writing or analysis in your academic feedback, but remain unsure as to how to make the change from description to critical analysis.
Some description is usually necessary to set the scene in each paragraph, but you need to make sure that you aren't just telling the story of other people's findings and theories.
Things that you could express in your writing include considering the questions below:
- Is this research or evidence credible?
- How could it be improved?
- Have other people made opposing claims?
- How does it relate to the other evidence in your argument?
Here are some examples illustrating the differences between descriptive and critical analytical writing:
Adapted from: Cottrell, S, (2008) The Study Skills Handbook, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, p286.
For advice and feedback on criticality in your own writing, book a writing advisory service appointment.
Make an appointment (student login required)
Have a go at identifying how descriptive or critical you have been in your own writing. Have a look at the Descriptive or critical writing template and use it to explore an example of your work – have you found the right balance of description and critical analysis?
Legitimation Code Theory
How do you use sources critically in your work? Legitimation Code Theory (LCT) is a way to break down the process into stages of ‘unpacking’ and ‘repacking’ complex ideas and to think about it visually.
What is LCT?
LCT is a theory that can be applied to a wide range of academic situations and uses what is known as a semantic wave.
It represents the different stages of understanding and applying academic sources of information, as well as how you then apply these sources to your own academic work.
It is useful as a way to visualise the critical reading of a text, as well as for structuring essay paragraphs.
This involves reading an academic text, identifying the important points, and transferring these points into more accessible or familiar language. This encompasses the following:
- Description: How would you describe what you have read or are writing about to demonstrate that you understand?
- Evidence: What evidence or examples could be used in support of the description? This shows you understand the context.
By the end of the unpacking section, you should have reached the bottom of the semantic wave.
Leaving the source unpacked is not enough to demonstrate critical thinking. In order to follow the semantic wave, you will need to ‘repack’ the source to explain why what you have read is important to your thinking.
This means putting the topic introduced during the unpacking stage into the context of your reading, essay or assignment. Doing so shows that you understand why including the points you have raised are important and relevant.
To complete the wave, think about concluding and drawing together all of the information you have explored, and summarising it so that it leads nicely onto the next piece of reading or essay paragraph.
Applying LCT in practice
When critical analysis is lacking in a piece of writing, its structure will often look like an incomplete wave. The sources have been described (unpacked) but have not been effectively analysed (repacked). Your aim as a critical writer is to provide a series of connected waves. It is easy to visualise how a lack of critical analysis means that the flow of your essay looks disjointed and incomplete.
LCT paragraph structure:
- Concept: Introduce the concept and main idea (also known as the controlling idea) being developed. This is also known as the topic sentence.
- Unpacking: Elaborate on the concept or context to unpack or explore the concept in a more specific way.
- Evidence and examples: Introduce some concrete examples to illustrate the (now unpacked) concept. This will typically be introduced with phrases like "findings demonstrate", for example.
- Repacking: What can be learnt or drawn out of the examples to shed further light on the concept? This repacking process demonstrates your interpretation or understanding of the concept.
- Rounding off: Summarise and draw together the points made about the controlling idea to create a complete message of what is discussed within the paragraph.
You can plan your work by identifying the different sections of the wave in each of your paragraphs using the LCT writing framework.
Access the LCT writing framework (google doc) For further information on Legitimation Code Theory please visit the LCT Centre, where you can find relevant resources and examples.
Access the LCT Centre resources (external link)
- How to think critically
- How to paraphrase and quote
- How to develop an academic argument
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