in 1938 b.f. skinner conducted experiments

Skinner’s Box Experiment (Behaviorism Study)

We receive rewards and punishments for many behaviors. More importantly, once we experience that reward or punishment, we are likely to perform (or not perform) that behavior again in anticipation of the result. 

Psychologists in the late 1800s and early 1900s believed that rewards and punishments were crucial to shaping and encouraging voluntary behavior. But they needed a way to test it. And they needed a name for how rewards and punishments shaped voluntary behaviors. Along came Burrhus Frederic Skinner , the creator of Skinner's Box, and the rest is history.

What Is Skinner's Box?

The "Skinner box" is a setup used in animal experiments. An animal is isolated in a box equipped with levers or other devices in this environment. The animal learns that pressing a lever or displaying specific behaviors can lead to rewards or punishments.

This setup was crucial for behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner developed his theories on operant conditioning. It also aided in understanding the concept of reinforcement schedules.

Here, "schedules" refer to the timing and frequency of rewards or punishments, which play a key role in shaping behavior. Skinner's research showed how different schedules impact how animals learn and respond to stimuli.

Who is B.F. Skinner?

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, also known as B.F. Skinner is considered the “father of Operant Conditioning.” His experiments, conducted in what is known as “Skinner’s box,” are some of the most well-known experiments in psychology. They helped shape the ideas of operant conditioning in behaviorism.

Law of Effect (Thorndike vs. Skinner) 

At the time, classical conditioning was the top theory in behaviorism. However, Skinner knew that research showed that voluntary behaviors could be part of the conditioning process. In the late 1800s, a psychologist named Edward Thorndike wrote about “The Law of Effect.” He said, “Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation.”

Thorndike tested out The Law of Effect with a box of his own. The box contained a maze and a lever. He placed a cat inside the box and a fish outside the box. He then recorded how the cats got out of the box and ate the fish. 

Thorndike noticed that the cats would explore the maze and eventually found the lever. The level would let them out of the box, leading them to the fish faster. Once discovering this, the cats were more likely to use the lever when they wanted to get fish. 

Skinner took this idea and ran with it. We call the box where animal experiments are performed "Skinner's box."

Why Do We Call This Box the "Skinner Box?"

Edward Thorndike used a box to train animals to perform behaviors for rewards. Later, psychologists like Martin Seligman used this apparatus to observe "learned helplessness." So why is this setup called a "Skinner Box?" Skinner not only used Skinner box experiments to show the existence of operant conditioning, but he also showed schedules in which operant conditioning was more or less effective, depending on your goals. And that is why he is called The Father of Operant Conditioning.

How Skinner's Box Worked

Inspired by Thorndike, Skinner created a box to test his theory of Operant Conditioning. (This box is also known as an “operant conditioning chamber.”)

The box was typically very simple. Skinner would place the rats in a Skinner box with neutral stimulants (that produced neither reinforcement nor punishment) and a lever that would dispense food. As the rats started to explore the box, they would stumble upon the level, activate it, and get food. Skinner observed that they were likely to engage in this behavior again, anticipating food. In some boxes, punishments would also be administered. Martin Seligman's learned helplessness experiments are a great example of using punishments to observe or shape an animal's behavior. Skinner usually worked with animals like rats or pigeons. And he took his research beyond what Thorndike did. He looked at how reinforcements and schedules of reinforcement would influence behavior. 

About Reinforcements

Reinforcements are the rewards that satisfy your needs. The fish that cats received outside of Thorndike’s box was positive reinforcement. In Skinner box experiments, pigeons or rats also received food. But positive reinforcements can be anything added after a behavior is performed: money, praise, candy, you name it. Operant conditioning certainly becomes more complicated when it comes to human reinforcements.

Positive vs. Negative Reinforcements 

Skinner also looked at negative reinforcements. Whereas positive reinforcements are given to subjects, negative reinforcements are rewards in the form of things taken away from subjects. In some experiments in the Skinner box, he would send an electric current through the box that would shock the rats. If the rats pushed the lever, the shocks would stop. The removal of that terrible pain was a negative reinforcement. The rats still sought the reinforcement but were not gaining anything when the shocks ended. Skinner saw that the rats quickly learned to turn off the shocks by pushing the lever. 

About Punishments

Skinner's Box also experimented with positive or negative punishments, in which harmful or unsatisfying things were taken away or given due to "bad behavior." For now, let's focus on the schedules of reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement 

We know that not every behavior has the same reinforcement every single time. Think about tipping as a rideshare driver or a barista at a coffee shop. You may have a string of customers who tip you generously after conversing with them. At this point, you’re likely to converse with your next customer. But what happens if they don’t tip you after you have a conversation with them? What happens if you stay silent for one ride and get a big tip? 

Psychologists like Skinner wanted to know how quickly someone makes a behavior a habit after receiving reinforcement. Aka, how many trips will it take for you to converse with passengers every time? They also wanted to know how fast a subject would stop conversing with passengers if you stopped getting tips. If the rat pulls the lever and doesn't get food, will they stop pulling the lever altogether?

Skinner attempted to answer these questions by looking at different schedules of reinforcement. He would offer positive reinforcements on different schedules, like offering it every time the behavior was performed (continuous reinforcement) or at random (variable ratio reinforcement.) Based on his experiments, he would measure the following:

• Response rate (how quickly the behavior was performed)
• Extinction rate (how quickly the behavior would stop) 

He found that there are multiple schedules of reinforcement, and they all yield different results. These schedules explain why your dog may not be responding to the treats you sometimes give him or why gambling can be so addictive. Not all of these schedules are possible, and that's okay, too.

Continuous Reinforcement

If you reinforce a behavior repeatedly, the response rate is medium, and the extinction rate is fast. The behavior will be performed only when reinforcement is needed. As soon as you stop reinforcing a behavior on this schedule, the behavior will not be performed.

Fixed-Ratio Reinforcement

Let’s say you reinforce the behavior every fourth or fifth time. The response rate is fast, and the extinction rate is medium. The behavior will be performed quickly to reach the reinforcement. 

Fixed-Interval Reinforcement

In the above cases, the reinforcement was given immediately after the behavior was performed. But what if the reinforcement was given at a fixed interval, provided that the behavior was performed at some point? Skinner found that the response rate is medium, and the extinction rate is medium. 

Variable-Ratio Reinforcement

Here's how gambling becomes so unpredictable and addictive. In gambling, you experience occasional wins, but you often face losses. This uncertainty keeps you hooked, not knowing when the next big win, or dopamine hit, will come. The behavior gets reinforced randomly. When gambling, your response is quick, but it takes a long time to stop wanting to gamble. This randomness is a key reason why gambling is highly addictive.

Variable-Interval Reinforcement

Last, the reinforcement is given out at random intervals, provided that the behavior is performed. Health inspectors or secret shoppers are commonly used examples of variable-interval reinforcement. The reinforcement could be administered five minutes after the behavior is performed or seven hours after the behavior is performed. Skinner found that the response rate for this schedule is fast, and the extinction rate is slow. 

Skinner's Box and Pigeon Pilots in World War II

Yes, you read that right. Skinner's work with pigeons and other animals in Skinner's box had real-life effects. After some time training pigeons in his boxes, B.F. Skinner got an idea. Pigeons were easy to train. They can see very well as they fly through the sky. They're also quite calm creatures and don't panic in intense situations. Their skills could be applied to the war that was raging on around him.

B.F. Skinner decided to create a missile that pigeons would operate. That's right. The U.S. military was having trouble accurately targeting missiles, and B.F. Skinner believed pigeons could help. He believed he could train the pigeons to recognize a target and peck when they saw it. As the pigeons pecked, Skinner's specially designed cockpit would navigate appropriately. Pigeons could be pilots in World War II missions, fighting Nazi Germany.

When Skinner proposed this idea to the military, he was met with skepticism. Yet, he received $25,000 to start his work on "Project Pigeon." The device worked! Operant conditioning trained pigeons to navigate missiles appropriately and hit their targets. Unfortunately, there was one problem. The mission killed the pigeons once the missiles were dropped. It would require a lot of pigeons! The military eventually passed on the project, but cockpit prototypes are on display at the American History Museum. Pretty cool, huh?

Examples of Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life

Not every example of operant conditioning has to end in dropping missiles. Nor does it have to happen in a box in a laboratory! You might find that you have used operant conditioning on yourself, a pet, or a child whose behavior changes with rewards and punishments. These operant conditioning examples will look into what this process can do for behavior and personality.

Hot Stove: If you put your hand on a hot stove, you will get burned. More importantly, you are very unlikely to put your hand on that hot stove again. Even though no one has made that stove hot as a punishment, the process still works.

Tips: If you converse with a passenger while driving for Uber, you might get an extra tip at the end of your ride. That's certainly a great reward! You will likely keep conversing with passengers as you drive for Uber. The same type of behavior applies to any service worker who gets tips!

Training a Dog: If your dog sits when you say “sit,” you might treat him. More importantly, they are likely to sit when you say, “sit.” (This is a form of variable-ratio reinforcement. Likely, you only treat your dog 50-90% of the time they sit. If you gave a dog a treat every time they sat, they probably wouldn't have room for breakfast or dinner!)

Operant Conditioning Is Everywhere!

We see operant conditioning training us everywhere, intentionally or unintentionally! Game makers and app developers design their products based on the "rewards" our brains feel when seeing notifications or checking into the app. Schoolteachers use rewards to control their unruly classes. Dog training doesn't always look different from training your child to do chores. We know why this happens, thanks to experiments like the ones performed in Skinner's box. 

Related posts:

• Operant Conditioning (Examples + Research)
• Edward Thorndike (Psychologist Biography)
• Schedules of Reinforcement (Examples)
• B.F. Skinner (Psychologist Biography)
• Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (Examples)

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Who is b. f. skinner (an introduction)​.

B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning​

• Stimulus: This is anything in the environment that triggers a response. It can be internal, like a thought or feeling, or external, like a sound or sight.
• Response: This is any behavior that occurs in response to a stimulus.
• Reinforcement: This is any consequence that increases the likelihood of a response being repeated. Reinforcements can be positive, such as praise or a reward, or negative, such as avoiding punishment.
• Punishment: This is any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a response being repeated. Punishments can be physical, such as a spanking, or social, such as criticism.
• A child is praised for saying "please" and "thank you." This positive reinforcement makes the child more likely to use these polite words in the future.
• A dog is given a treat for sitting on command. This positive reinforcement makes the dog more likely to sit on command in the future.
• A student is given detention for talking in class. This punishment makes the student less likely to talk in class in the future.

Video: B. F. Skinner Foundation - Pigeon Turn

B. F. Skinner and Verbal Behavior

• Tacts: Words that refer to objects or events in the environment, reinforced by the listener's understanding or confirmation. (Imagine a child saying "dog" and pointing at a dog, then being praised by their parent.)
• Mands: Words used to get something you want, reinforced by the listener providing the desired item or action. (A child saying "milk" and their parent giving them milk.)
• Autoclitics: Words that modify or add meaning to other words, like "very" or "not."
• Echoics: Sounds or words that imitate those heard from others, often as a way of learning language.

B. F. Skinner's Theory of Learning

• Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. Instead of waiting for the exact behavior to occur, small steps or behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired one are reinforced.
• Extinction is the process of weakening a behavior by either no longer reinforcing it or by reinforcing it inconsistently. In other words, if a behavior that has been previously reinforced is no longer followed by reinforcement, it is likely to decrease in frequency and eventually extinguish.
• Schedules of reinforcement are about how the timing and frequency of reinforcement also play a role in learning. Skinner identified various schedules, such as continuous, fixed-interval, variable-interval, fixed-ratio, and variable-ratio, each with different effects on the strength and persistence of behavior.

B. F. Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory​

B. F. Skinner on Positive Reinforcement

• A teacher praises a student for completing their homework on time.
• A parent gives their child a hug and a sticker chart for using the potty.
• A manager acknowledges and rewards an employee for exceeding their sales goals.

B. F. Skinner on Negative Reinforcement

B. F. Skinner’s Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: Every time the desired behavior occurs, it is reinforced. This is effective for initially establishing a new behavior.
• Partial reinforcement: The desired behavior is reinforced only some of the time. This leads to more persistent learning than continuous reinforcement, but it takes longer to establish the behavior.
• Fixed-ratio reinforcement: Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of desired behaviors.
• Variable-ratio reinforcement: Reinforcement is provided after a varying number of desired behaviors. This creates the strongest and most persistent learning but takes the longest to establish the behavior. This is why gambling can be so addictive.

Video: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: Rewards & Punishments

​B. F. Skinner’s Famous Pigeon Experiment

B. f. skinner’s personality theory, b. f. skinner and free will.

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• American Psychological Association. (2023). Operant conditioning. In APA dictionary of psychology . Retrieved December 27, 2023, from https://dictionary.apa.org/operant-conditioning 
• Clayton, M. (2018). The song remains the same: A review of Harris’ Free Will. Perspectives on Behavior Science , 41 , 653–656.
• Sautter, R. A., & LeBlanc, L. A. (2006). Empirical applications of Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior with humans. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior , 22 , 35–48.
• Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition' in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology , 38 (2), 168.
• Staddon, J. E., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology , 54 (1), 115–144.
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9 B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning: Contributions to Modern Day Society

James McLatchie; Kailee Hanke; Sophia Goto; and Katelyn Thickett

Introduction (Sophia)

B.F. Skinner’s pioneering work in Behaviourism has left a lasting mark on modern society. At the center of his legacy is the development of operant conditioning, a concept that has directly impacted the realms of education and parenting, workplace dynamics, animal training, and therapeutic interventions. In this exploration, we take a closer look at Skinner’s legacy and the modern day applications of operant conditioning. Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning, a type of learning in which behaviour is modified by its consequences (Martin & Pear, 2019). In particular, Skinner developed the concept of reinforcement, which is the action of increasing target behaviours through the offering of desirable rewards. Operant conditioning has shaped how modern society approaches child development, especially in the classroom and through child-rearing practices. It is widely used in the workplace today in the implementation of employee rewards and promotions, benefitting both employees and managers (Aydemir, 2015). Operant conditioning techniques are commonly used in animal training in order to enforce the learning of desired behaviours (Cimarelli et al., 2021). Finally, through operant conditioning, Skinner impacted the field of Applied Behavioural Analysis and its goal, behaviour modification.

Background (Kailee; James)

B.F. Skinner was a psychologist who focused primarily on behaviour, and was a leading figure in behaviourism (Keller, 1991). Prior to WWII, in the 1930s, he would work extensively in laboratories researching animal behaviour, running behavioural engineering experiments and creating behavioural technologies such as the Skinner box, which would be “essential in providing the proper conditions for the manipulation of operant behaviour” (Capshew, 1993). Beginning with his 1930 study of the eating behaviour of white laboratory rats, Skinner would develop a research technique for voluntary behaviour that he would later call operant conditioning (Keller, 1991). By 1938, he would distinguish between involuntary behaviour or Pavlovian/classical conditioning and voluntary behaviour or operant conditioning (Martin & Pear, 2019). He viewed predictable or voluntary behaviour through operant conditioning as a step up and a step further for behaviour engineering than the involuntary behaviour of classical conditioning (Capshew, 1993).  It was during the 1930s that Skinner worked on and refined what he viewed as operant behaviour, operant behaviour being produced spontaneously rather than with a specific stimuli like that of classical conditioning (Capshew, 1993). However, Skinner noted that classical conditioning appeared to be restricted to simple and reflexive behaviour, and wanted to explore “more complex kinds of behaviour that were maintained through operant reinforcement” (Capshew,1993). Skinner would go on to develop simple and strong procedures to be used for operant conditioning, to consistently create operant behaviour (Capshew, 1993).  One example of shaping an animal’s behaviour with his operant methods was training a rat to “produce responses that were not in the original behavioural repertoire of the rat… [through the] power of operant conditioning” (Capshew, 1993). Operant Conditioning is defined as a type of learning in which behaviour is modified by its consequences, either through rewards or punishments (Martin & Pear, 2019).  Operant Behaviour is a “behaviour that (a) affects or “operates on” the environment to produce consequences, and which is, in turn, influenced by those consequences; (b) is referred to as voluntary; and (c) usually involves skeletal muscles.” (Martin & Pear, 2019). Operant conditioning works to take those behaviours and modifies and reinforces them. It wouldn’t be until Skinner’s work on Project Pigeon during WWII, an attempt to create guided missiles with operantly conditioned pigeons, that he would start to shift from working on behavioural engineering in laboratories to seeing applications for operant conditioning “applications in a variety of real-life contexts” (Capshew, 1993). Eventually expanding from animals to humans and societies, as seen in his book Walden Two, where he conceived “a utopian human society based on the principles of reinforcement  that he gleaned from his laboratory research on animal behaviour” (Capshew, 1993).

Developmental Psychology (Sophia)

Skinner importantly distinguished between informal learning, which occurs naturally, and formal education, where teachers create specific patterns of stimulus and response in order to facilitate learning (Scholar, 2024). Prior to Skinner’s operant conditioning, informal learning was prevalent in North America before the widespread establishment of formal educational institutions. Informal learning is based on experience that takes place outside of structured institutions (Macia & Garcia, 2016). Informal learning can be intentional or unintentional, and is often self-directed. Some examples of such learning include reading, gaining hands-on experiences, and conversing with others.

Following the introduction of institutional learning, Skinner believed that education could be vastly improved by the implementation of reinforcement in teaching (Scholar, 2024). He was hopeful that by applying the operant conditioning principle of reinforcement to lessons, teachers could expedite the learning process. Skinner highlighted the importance of immediate and consistent reinforcement and proposed that proper understanding and use of reinforcement contingencies could foster students’ enthusiasm and engagement in the classroom. Examples of operant conditioning in the classroom are rewarding a child for completing their homework (positive reward) or giving a child detention for misbehaving (positive punishment) (Cherry, 2023). Skinner’s concept of programmed instruction was also directly incorporated into the classroom setting (Brittanica, 2024). This concept involves breaking down information to be learned into smaller sequences, and allows students to learn at various paces.

Child-rearing practices have changed immensely over the years, influenced by various factors including cultural shifts, advancements in psychology, and changing societal norms. In order to appreciate Skinner’s contribution to child-rearing, we must delve deeply into common practices over the ages: During the Renaissance period until the mid-1600s, children were expected to contribute to familial income, despite the fact that childhood was beginning to be recognized as a distinct phase of life (Amezcua-Patino, 2023). Economic demands meant that children often had to contribute to family responsibilities. Education was closely tied to religious institutions, with limited access to formal schooling. The Enlightenment era, taking place from the late 17th to the 18th century, gave rise to new perspectives on child-rearing. Notable thinkers of the time, such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau played key roles in shaping new perspectives on child-rearing (Amezcua-Patino 2023). Locke’s idea of children as a “blank slate” emphasized the role of experience in shaping children’s minds. During this time, parenting shifted towards a bonding approach, emphasizing emotional ties between parents and their children. Beginning in the late 18th century, the Industrial Revolution marked significant changes in family structures. Parents and children often worked outside the home, separating work and family life. Children entered the workforce, shifting from farm labor to factory work, which would later spark child welfare movements (Amezcua-Patino, 2023). Fathers became primary providers and education gained importance for social mobility. Despite some economic growth, child labour and family struggles were on the rise. Finally, beginning in the 20th century, parenting saw a significant evolution driven by scientific insights from notable psychologists such as Freud, Erikson, and Piaget (Amezcua-Patino, 2023). Neobehaviourism, championed by B.F. Skinner,  emphasized the importance of external influences on behaviour. Skinner’s perspective of operant conditioning gave rise to behaviour modification techniques that are still used in parenting practices in modern society. Reward systems and positive reinforcement have become widely used tools for parents hoping to guide their children’s behaviour. For example, in a token economy system, children earn tokens such as points or stickers, for demonstrating some desired behaviour. Upon earning a certain amount of ‘tokens’, children can exchange them for some reward from their parents. Additionally, setting clear expectations to children also utilizes operant conditioning by helping children to understand consequences for their actions.

Workplace Dynamics (James)

By now, you should have a general understanding of what operant conditioning is and how it can be used to modify behaviours. We know from the previous paragraph that B.F. Skinner’s work on operant conditioning and behaviour modification has been useful as a tool for both parents and teachers when engaging in child rearing and education respectively, however, the techniques used in those contexts are also transferable to a workplace environment. That said, more research needs to be conducted utilizing operant conditioning in the workplace as the full breadth of its value has yet to be adequately analyzed in that context (Aydemir 2015).

In an experiment conducted by Komaki et al. (2011) participants were trained to monitor and engage with each other through the use of operant conditioning in the form of responding to memos with immediate (negative and positive/neutral) consequences. The positive consequences would include an acknowledgement of a participant’s accomplishment or effort (even if a mistake was made), the neutral consequences were neither approving or disapproving of their performance, and the negative consequences were pointing out any errors in a way that (crucially) was not sarcastic, abrupt, or demanding. The results of the experiment showed that “trainees in the treatment group provided significantly more consequences, particularly positive ones, even going so far as to acknowledge persons delivering bad news” (Komaki et al., 2011). In addition, managers in the treatment group were not only able to take bad news gracefully but would even thank the bearers of bad news for alerting them of current issues (Komaki et al., 2011). Lastly, of the participants polled at the end, ninety-three percent of them enjoyed the training and attested to its usefulness, noting the most valuable content was that of the “motivational techniques” (Komaki et al., 2011).

Much like a parent at home, or a teacher in a class seeks to guide their children and students toward success, so too should a manager at work with their employees. While a pat on the head for a dish well washed, or a gold star for completing your homework are a far cry from the admiration and respect of your boss, they all share a common trait, you’re being awarded with positive consequences in the form of acknowledgment and appreciation for your work.

According to Aydemir (2015), the use of psychological conditioning within organizations is vastly underutilized and under-studied. In his research article Aydemir (2015) suggests that operant conditioning is applicable to multiple areas within an organization and attempts to create a research design which would facilitate more data to be acquired and analyzed on the subject. Aydemir’s (2015) design posits some following hypothesis based on previous research:

• “Conditioning increases the motivation of the employees by increasing the safety of the workplace.” Based on information from (Johnson, 2003).
• “Conditioning negatively affects the decisions of the investors by making them fear an upcoming crisis when stimulus generalization is present.” Based on information from (Ferguson, 1989).
• “Conditioning increases the motivation of the employees by increasing the effectiveness of the reward systems when applied with a VR schedule.” Based on information from (Wathieu, 2004)
• “Conditioning increases the willingness to buy of consumers by increasing the effects of advertising when positive US are used in promotion.” Based on information from (Wathieu, 2004)

These are just some of the potential applications of operant conditioning within an organization and while it’s a good start, there’s always room for more research.

Animal Training (Kailee)

When Skinner was developing operant conditioning through his research on animal behaviour, he was aware of how professional animal trainers were already using similar methods, however he noted that they had developed those methods via trial and error instead of the disciplined research and investigation he was putting towards understanding operant behaviour and conditioning on animals (Capshew, 1993). Starting with his rats, and then moving onto pigeons through Project Pigeon during WWII, Skinner developed operant conditioning techniques for animal training (Capshew, 1993).

Today, operant conditioning is often applied in dog training, and is combined with classical conditioning when clicker training is used to enforce the learning of desired behaviours (Cimarelli et al., 2021). Clicker training is used to teach dogs new behaviours by reinforcing behaviour “by associating a specific response to an arbitrary stimulus through a positive reinforcer as in operant conditioning, through the use of a sound (a click, conditioned stimulus and secondary reinforcer)” (Cimarelli et al., 2021) Animal training in zoos also make use of operant conditioning to enrich environments, give the animal some control, and ease interactions with humans such as trainers and veterinarians (Westlund, 2014). The training of zoo animals started in marine parks, with them training marine animals for performances to be shown in front of audiences, however has since evolved into focusing on the improving and maintaining the well-fare of the animals rather than showcasing them (Westlund, 2014). The training of the animals is often occurring in formal training sessions, however informal training occurs all the time (Westlund, 2014). The formal training sessions has “the trainer … directly interacting with the animal using predominantly operant conditioning techniques” (Westlund, 2014), with the exact training methods depending on the desired operant behaviour (Westlund, 2014). The use of operant conditioning for training marine animals, such as for commercial use in marine parks such as SeaWorld and others began in the 1950’s, and the rapid expansion “of the marine park industry during this time was closely linked to the spread of behavioural technology” (Gillaspy et al., 2014) seen during this time. The operant methods of training animals were found to be effective and efficient, another “key to its rapid spread throughout the marine animal industry” (Gillaspy et al., 2014). Today, operant conditioning for marine animals is the main training paradigm (Gillaspy et al., 2014).

Behavioural Interventions (Katelyn)

In the year 1938, B.F. Skinner was renowned for the approach in which behaviours are modified by rewards and/or consequences for example through reinforcement and punishment known as operant conditioning (Martin & Pear, 2019, p. 48). The influence of B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning has been used in behaviour modifications, an example of this was in teaching a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to wear prescription glasses  (Martin & Pear, 2019, p. 48). The use of behaviour modification is not limited to autism spectrum disorder and can be used with many populations including parenting, gerontology, education, and psychological disorders (Martin & Pear, 2019, p. 63). Interestingly enough, a journal article states that there are three hundred and fifty domains in which applied behaviour analysis can be used in (Heward et al., 2022).  Applied behaviour analysis uses positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment which connects back to B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning model. However, B.F. Skinner had no intention of using behaviour applications to populations including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as these disorders were not discovered yet. B.F. Skinner’s philosophy was to understand psychology as a natural science and to understand why people behave the way they do in hopes of having a benefit to society.

Positive reinforcement is when someone in a given situation immediately receives a positive reinforcer, and they are more likely to repeat that same action in the future (Martin & Pear, 2019, p. 177). An example of positive reinforcement is giving a child a cookie right after they have sat quietly at their sibling’s piano lesson. From a behaviourist perspective, the result of this would be that the child would be more likely to sit quietly in future lessons as they associate this behaviour with the reward of a cookie or something similar. Problems can occur with positive reinforcement in that if the reward is not constant, the behaviour is less likely to continue. As well, issues with reinforcing the wrong stimuli can occur.

Contrary to positive reinforcement is negative reinforcement which involves the addition of aversive stimuli that leads to a desired behaviour (Martin & Pear, 2019, p. 410). An example of negative reinforcement is a healthcare aids refusal to bath an aggressive resident in a care facility, in response to the undesired aggressive bathing behaviour that has occurred.  A drawback of this behavioural approach is the sensitization that may occur over time resulting in not reacting to the aversive stimuli not resulting in behaviour change. However, negative punishment is the taking away of a positive reinforcer immediately after an undesired behaviour. An example of negative punishment could be taking away of a desired toy from a child who is misbehaving. Lastly, positive punishment is the addition of negative stimuli in response to undesired behaviour. An example of this is adding more chores to a child’s chore list in response to undesired behaviour. Although B.F. Skinner’s original motives were not aimed toward applied behaviour analysis as an unknown field at his time, his contributions have left a positive remark on behaviour interventions as a whole. B.F. Skinner’s contributions have motivated many others to further exploration within behaviour and behaviour interventions.

Conclusion (Katelyn)

Modern-day behaviourist approaches have been highly influenced by B.F. Skinner. The concept of operant conditioning proposed by B.F. Skinner is used across numerous fields presently including but not limited to child development, workplace dynamics, animal training, and behavioural interventions. The idea of operant conditioning and in particular the use of positive reinforcement could be a continuation of reinforcement in rewarding positive behaviours. Often, punishment may be our first response to undesired behaviours but we should also remember to reinforce desired behaviours. Further exploration within the field of behaviourism could align with B.F. Skinner’s philosophy on having a positive remark on society as a whole.

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Psychological Roots: Past and Present Perspectives in the Field of Psychology (Under Development) Copyright © by James McLatchie; Kailee Hanke; Sophia Goto; and Katelyn Thickett. All Rights Reserved.

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Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis.

In 1938, B.F. Skinner published a ground-breaking book that would change the course of psychology forever. The book, titled "The Behaviour of Organisms," presented Skinner's radical new theory of behaviourism and laid the groundwork for the development of the field of operant conditioning. At the time of Skinner's writing, the dominant theory of psychology was behaviorism, which held that all behavior was the result of stimulus-response associations, and that learning occurred through reinforcement and punishment. However, Skinner believed that this perspective was too limited to explain the full range of human behaviour. Skinner proposed a new approach to understanding behaviour, which he called "operant conditioning." According to Skinner, behaviour is shaped by the consequences that follow it. If a behaviour is followed by a positive consequence, such as a reward, it is more likely to be repeated in the future. Conversely, if a behaviour is followed by a negative consequence, such as a punishment, it is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner's work also included a description of a device he called the "operant conditioning chamber," or the "Skinner box." This device was designed to study the behaviour of animals in a controlled environment. The box contained a lever or button that an animal could press to receive a reward, such as food or water. Skinner used this device to study the effects of reinforcement and punishment on behaviour, and to develop his theories about how behaviour is learned and modified. "The Behavior of Organisms" was a landmark publication in the field of psychology, and it had a profound impact on the way that psychologists understand human behaviour. Skinner's work inspired a generation of behaviourists and helped to pave the way for the development of the field of behavioural psychology. One of the key strengths of Skinner's approach was its emphasis on observable, measurable behaviour. Skinner believed that psychology should focus on the study of behaviour rather than the study of unobservable mental processes, which he believed were inherently subjective and difficult to study objectively. Despite the criticism that Skinner's work has received over the years, his contributions to the field of psychology are significant and enduring. His work on operant conditioning has had a major impact on our understanding of human behaviour, and has been applied in a wide range of settings, including education, healthcare, and business. Overall, "The Behavior of Organisms" remains an important and influential work in the field of psychology, and continues to shape the way that psychologists think about behaviour and learning to this day.

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Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.

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